Full text of "Indian Caste."

See other formats

Di-vision

D5^2.2.

Section CL3vn^

Digitized by the Internet Archive ^
in 2016

https://archive.org/details/indiancasteOOwiTs

INDIAN CASTE.

BY THE LATE

JOHN WILSON, D.D., F.R.S.,

H050RA.RT PRESIDENT OF THE BOMBAY BRANCH OP THE ROYAL ASUTIC SOCIETY, AND
SOME TIME VICE-CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF BOMBAY,

MISSIONARY OF THE FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.

IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. I.

Times of India Office,

Bombay.

William Blackwood & Sons,

Edinburgh & London.

1877.

BoMBiT : PRINTED AT THE TIMES CF INDIA STEAM PRESo.

NOTE.

When Dr. Wilson died in December 1875, he
left no instructions as to the future disposal of the
work on Caste on which he had been engaged at
intervals for the last twenty years of his life.
A cursory inspection of the vast mass of papers
which Dr. AVilson left led me to hope that ample
material existed for a continuation of the work,
if not for its absolute completion. Accordingly,
after a delay caused by the necessity of going
through all the papers for purposes connected
with the winding up of the Estate, all those that
seemed to appertain to Dr. Wilson’s literary
activity were sent to Mr. Andrew Wilson, into
whose hands the task of completing the Book
from material existing in manuscript would
naturally have fallen. But the result of a care-
ful investigation was to satisfy the family that
nothing would be gained by attempting to add
materially to the work as Dr. Wilson left it ; and,
accordingly, I was requested to have it brought
out without further delay.

iv.

Dr. Wilson had finally corrected the whole of
the first volume of the work, and the second
volume as far as the end of page 184. The
material for pp. 1 84-228 of the second volume,
completing the account of the Brahmanical castes,
existed partly in type, partly in manuscript. But
these pages were not revised by the Author.

I should perhaps mention that a portion of the
first volume has been in type since 1857.

An index of names and the more important
subjects has been added.

PETER PETERSON, M.A.

Elphinstone College^

1^< October, 1877.

CONTENTS.

Part First— What Caste is.

Pages.

9 — 12 SECTION I. Introductory Remarks.

12 — 17 SECTION II. The Meaning, Sphere, Authority and

Symbols of Caste.

17 — 53 SECTION III. Orthodox View of the Four Original

Castes.

The Brahman. His four orders. Present pretensions of
the Brahman. The Kshatriya. The Vaishya. The
Shudra.

53 — 72 SECTION IV. Orthodox View of the Mixed Castes.

Manu’s account. Maratha Tabular View. Conservative
Spirit of Orthodox School.

73 — 211 SECTION V. Origin and Development of Indian

Caste.

Notices in the Rig Veda. The Aryas and Dasyus. The
Early Priesthood. The Rishis. The Kshatriyas and
Vaishyas. The Shudras. The God Brahma. Caste no
systematic institution of the Aryas. The Purusha Sukta.
Notices in the Sama Veda. In the Yajiu’ Veda. The
Purusha Medha. Notices in the Atharva Veda. In the
Brahmanas. Aitareya Brahmana quoted. Legend of
Sunahshepha. Notices in the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
In the Sutras. Recapitulation.

212 — 277 SECTION VI. Caste in the Indian Epics.

The Ramayana. The Mahabharata.

CONTUKTS,

PAGES.

278 — 315 SECTION VII. The Buddhist View of Caste.

Buddha. Date of his death. His doctrines. Buddhist
Literature. Buddha’s Relations to Caste. The Vajra '
Shuchi and Skanda Parana. The Jainas.

315 — 353 SECTION VIII. A Peep at Indian Society by the

Greeks.

Herodotus. Arrian. — Alexander’s expedition. Megas-
thenes. His classification of the Indians. Strabo. Ptolemy.

354 — 418 SECTION IX. Caste in the Law Books and Later

Indian Literature.

List of Smritis. Substance of that of Augiras. Mauu.
The Mitakshara. The Parashara Smriti. The Mayukha.

418 — 422 SECTION X. Caste in the Harivansha.

422 — 450 SECTION XI. Caste in the Pdranas.

List of the Puranas. Notices of Caste in the several
Puranas.

INDIAN CASTE

BY THE LATE

JOHN WILSON, D.D., F.K.S.,

UOSORARY PRESIDENT OP THE BOMBAY BRANCH OP THE ROYAL ASUTIC SOCIETY, AND
SOME TIME VICE-CHANCELLOR OP THE UNIVERSITY OP BOMBAY,

MISSIONARY OF THE FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND.

IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. II.

Times of India Office,

Bombay.

William Blackwood & Sons,

Edinburgh & London.

1877.

BOMBAY : PRISTED AT THE TIMEa CF INDIA STEAM PRESS.

CONTENTS.

Part Second— What the Castes are.

Pages.

1—228

SECTION I. — The Brahmanical or Priestly Castes.
First Distinctions among the Brahmans.

17 General Divisions of the Brahmans.

17-

-123 The

The

Polil

The

124-

-228 The

124

The

140

The

148

The

159

The

166

The

187

The

192

The

196

The

203

The

220

The

222

The

,,. .,v ,' -: -, ' ■g'f

, J ^ ^ ^ ■.

Ini iaAw--d:ioc^ T/ri^

«. '•■

.4t»T

■j ^ nx’AO ri

■;j .JWRttlarrU i^Jti^^V'' tt*#\' , ^ ■«

*- fe’-Tn' - "* -..'.'a.rt.?i. *i >,-4,!l»^T^/t M " '1

4! *

*r ^

0^’,

- j t

' \ >i - ' \ ■

h . •

i4t(.'>«til«ili /rf'Jfl' BtftV^ ^ ^ W

.^u£::pf:it,tt AflfdCif^ U V

. >|^*f '.’-ri^v,,

. 4.. r^jr _j 0.V

_r : ' ~v* fr ‘ '.

^X: 5.;'-‘ ■ ' ■ ' ■ . ; 'W J^ielsftnff-v*^

0 '% \

• 'S.v .l*'tttALi .,-;A*’*Ji 'J

• ' . ■^ 1 . U. ' ‘'’''wBlJit. Aiitjt rif^ fli t ^

.1^ ' ^.: V ■

.*...ii'fi|gt.*j ifey'j.il' -»,r4'

. •■ irtit flijlitl ' ' t ‘ < i 1»’
'1^'’

INDIAN CASTE.

PART FIRST.— WHAT CASTE IS.

I. — Introductory Remarks.

Pride of ancestry, of family and personal position and
occupation, and of religious pre-eminence, which, as
will be immediately seen, is the grand characteristic
of “ Caste,” is not peculiar to India. Nations and
peoples, as well as individuals, have in all countries, in
all ages, and at all times, been prone to take exaggerated
views of their own importance, and to claim for them-
selves a natural and historical and social superiority
to which they have had no adequate title. That spirit
which led many of the olden tribes of men to consider
their progenitors as the direct offspring of the soil on
which they trode, as the children of the sun moon and
other heavenly bodies in whose light they rejoiced, or as
the procreations or manifestations of the imaginary per-
sonal gods whom they worshipped, has been very ex-
tensive in its influence throughout the world. The higher
communities and classes of men, ungrateful to Provi-
dence for their advantages when real, have often looked
with contempt and disdain on the lower ; while the lower
have looked with envy, jealousy, and depreciation
on the higher. Comparatively few individuals, indeed,

WHAT CASTE IS.

except under the liberalizing and purifying’ influ-
ences of onr holy faitli, have been able sincerely to
adopt the language of the Roman poet,

Nam genus 'et proavos et quae non fecimus ipsi,

Yix ea nostra toco ;*

or of the Roman orator, “ Quanto superiores snmus, tanto
nos o'eramns submissins.”t Who maketh us to differ? and
what are the responsibilities of onr respective positions ?
have been cpiestions but seldom put and made the subject
of distinct recognition. The existence of a common
brotherhood in the human family, and the practice of a
common sympath}' and succour, have by the majority of
men been grievously overlooked. Tyranny and mischief
and cruelty have been most extensively the consequence
of antisocial presumption and pretension. The constant
experience of the general observer of human nature has
been not unlike that of the Hebrew sage, Agur, the son
of Jakeh:

There is a generation that are pure in their own eyes.

And yet is not washed from their filthiness.

Tliere is a generation, O how lofty are their eyes !

And their eyelids are lifted up.

There is a generation whose teeth are as stvords.

And their jaw-teeth as knives.

To devour the poor from off the earth,

And the needy from among men.J

It is among the Hindus, however, that the imagina-

* For descent and lineage, and the things which we ourselves
have not aceomplished : these I scarcely call our own. Ovid.

f The loftier that we really are, the more humbly let us conduct
ourselves. Quintilian.

I Prov. XXX. 12-14.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

tion of natural and positive distinctions in humanity has
been brought to tlie most fearful and pernicious dev^e-
lopment ever exhibited on the face of the globe- The
doctrine and practice of what is called Caste, as held
and observed by this people, has been only dimly
shadowed by the worst social arrangements which were
of old to be witnessed among the proudest nations and
among the proudest orders of men in these nations. The
Egyptians, who, according to Herodotus, considered
themselves “ the most ancient of all nations,” and who
are described by him as “ excessively religious beyond
any other people,” and ‘‘ too much addicted to their an-
cestorial customs to adopt any other,”* most nearly ap-
proached them in their national and family pretensions,
and the privilege and customs of priests and peo[>le
viewed in reference both to descent and occupation ;
but in the multitude, diversity, complication, and bur-
densomeness of their religious and social distinctions, the
Hindus have left the Egyptians far behind. Indian Caste
is the condensation of all the pride, jealousy, and tyranny
of an ancient and predominant people dealing with the
tribes which ithey have subjected, and over which they
have ruled, often without the sympathies of a recognized
common humanity. It is the offspring of extraordinary
exaggeration and mystification, and of all the false sj)e-
culation and religious scrupulosity of a great country
undergoing unwonted processes of degeneration and cor-
ruption. It is now the soul as well as the body of
Hinduism.! More than anything that ever came within

* Herodot. Euterp.

! This is admitted by the natives of India. E. g., Gangadhar Shas-
tri Wiadake, in the lliudu-DIiuruia Tatva (p. 76), says in'

WHAT CASTE IS.

the sphere of the observation of our own great poet,
Shakespeare, it is

“ That monster Custom, who all sense doth eat
Of habits devil.”

It is dishonouring alike to the Creator of man, and in-
jurious to man the creature. It is emphatically the
curse of India and the parent of India’s woes. It is the
great enemy of enlightenment and improvement and
advancement in India. It is the grand obstacle to the
' triumphs of the Gospel of peace in India- Its evil
doings of late, it is not too bold to say, have moved earth
below and heaven above and hell beneath. With its terri-
ble deeds before us proclaiming its hate and power,
attention may well be bestowed on its origan, develop-
ments, character, and results, and on our omi duty with
respect to its continued influence on Indian society.

II. — The Meaning, Sphere, Authority, and Symbols
OF Caste.

Caste is not an Indian word. Its original form, casta,
belongs to the Portuguese, by whom it was ordinarily
used among themselves to express “ cast,” mould,”
“ race,” kind,” and quality.” It was applied by the
Portuguese, wdien they first arrived in the East, to desig-
nate the peculiar system of religious and social distinc-

f srrri'it?- arrlir jtt fr Hcr&fT urflerr ant . . . .1 sttIt-

u? ?T rtf'TJTT^r TRsT TT^T arrf ; fr

^rfT- — it is by means of these Caste distinctions that in
the Bharatkhanda the Hindu religion has been so well presei’ved. . . .
These Caste distinctions are the chief support of the Hindu religion ;
when it (this support) gives way there can be no doubt that the Hindu
religion will sink to destruction.

MEANING AND SrilERE OF CASTE.

tions which they observed among the Hindu people,
particularly as founded on race.* The Indian word
which partially corresponds with Caste is Jati, equivalent
to the Latin gens, (in the inflected form gent — ) and Greek
7£voc, “ race or nation while Jati-hheda, the represent-
ative of the foundations of the caste-system, means the
“ distinctions of race ( gentis discrhnina. )” Varna, an-
other word used for it by the Hindus, originally meant a
diflerence in “ colour.” Gradually these Indian words,
conveniently rendered by Caste, have coihe to represent
not only varieties of race and colour, but every original,
hereditary, religious, instituted, and conventional distinc-
tion which it is possible to imagine. Caste has its peculiar
recognitions, — though of a discordant character, — of crea-
tion, formation, constitution, and birth, in all varieties of
existence and life, whether vegetable, brutal, human, or
superhuman. It gives its directions for recognition,
acceptance, consecration, and sacramental dedication, and
vice versd, of a human being on his appearance in the
world. It has for infancy, pupilage, and manhood, its
ordained methods of sucking, sipping, drinking, eating,
and voiding ; of washing, rinsing, anointing, and smear-
ing ; of clothing, dressing, and ornamenting ; of sitting,

* Thus, in describing the people of Malabar, Camoens (Lusiad.
Cant. VII. 37) says : —

A lei da gcnte toda, rica, e pobre
De fabulas composta se imagina :

Andam nus, e somente hum panno cobre
As partes, que a cobrir natura cnsina :

Dous modes ha de gente ; porque a nobro
Naires cliamados sao; e a menos dina
PoleEs tem por nome; a quern obriga
A lei uao mistui-ar a casta antiqua :

WHAT CASTE IS.

rising, and reclining ; of moving, visiting, and travelling ;
of speaking, reading, listening, and reciting ; and of me-
ditating, singing, Avorking, playing, and lighting. It
has its laws for social and religious rights, privileges, and
occupations ; for instructing, training, and educating ;
for obligation, duty, and practice ; for divine recognition,
service, and ceremony ; for errors, sins, and transgres-
sions ; for intercommunion, avoidance, and excommuni-
cation ; for defilement, ablution, and purification ; for
fines, chastisements, imprisonments, mutilations, banish-
ments azid capital executions. It unfolds the Ava3"s of
committing what it calls sin, accumulating sin, and of
putting away sin ; and of acquiring merit, dispensing merit,
and losing merit. It treats of inheritance, conveyance,
possession, and dispossession; and of bargains, gain, loss,
and ruin. It deals with death, burial, and burning ; and
with commemoration, assistance, and injury after death.
It interferes, in short, Avith all the relations and events of
life, and Avith what precedes and follows, or Avhat is
supposed to precede and folloAV life. It reigns supremo
in the innumerable classes and divisions of the Hindus,
Avhether they originate in family descent, in religious
opinions, in civil or sacred occupations, or in local resi-
dence ; and it professes to regulate all their interests,
affairs, and relationships. Caste is the guiding principle of
each of the classes and divisions of the Hindus viewed in
their distinct or associated capacity. A caste is any of
the classes or divisions of Hindu society.

The authority of Caste rests partly on written laAvs,
partly on legendary fables and narratiA^es, partly on A^erbal
tradition, partly on the injunctions of instructors and
priests, partly on custom and usage, and partly on the

AUTHORITY AXD SYMBOLS OF CASTE.

caprice and convenience of its votaries. “ Tlie roots O'f
law,” sa3"s Manu, “are the whole Veda, the ordinances and
observanes of such as perfectly understand it, the im-
memorial customs of good men, and self-satisfaction.”
“No doubt that man who shall follow the rules prescribed
in the Shruti [what was heard, from the Veda] and in thev^
Smy'iti [what was remembered, from the Law] will acquire
fame in this life, and in the next inexpressible happiness,”

“ Custom is transcendent law.”* The rules, and customs,
and prejudices, and breaches, and ofl’ences, and conces-
sions, and intermissions, and compromises of Caste are
numerous and capricious, and complicated beyond com^,^--^
ception. They are constantly characterized by pride and
folly^and frequently by wickedness.

Caste has its marks, and signs, and symbols, and
symbolical acts, as well as its laws and customs ; and
very great stress is laid by it on their constant exhibi-
tion. The grand index of Hinduism is the tuft of hair
on the crown of the head, — called in Sanskrit chuda, or
shikhd, in Marathi shend'i, and in Tamul kudame, —
which is left there on the performance of the sacrament of
tonsure, on the first or third year after birth in the case
of the three first classes of the Hindus.! In consequence
of this mark, Hinduism is popularly known as the Shen-
di-dharma , or religion of the Shcncli.^ In the eighth
year after the conception of a Brahman (the representa-
tive of the priestly class), in the eleventh from that of
a prince or Ksliairiya, and in the twelfth from that
of a Vish or Vaishya, the agriculturist and mer-

*Manu, ii. 6; ii. 9; i. 108. t See Manu, ii. 35.

1 See Molesworth’s Marilthi Dictionary, sub voc.

WHAT CASTE IS.

chant, tlie investiture with the sacred cord should oc-
cur ;* tliongh this sacrament, in the case of these classes
pai tiv-iilarly eager for its special blessings, may be re-
sulted to by them in their fifth, sixth, or eighth year
respectively. t It should never be delayed in the case of
a Brahman beyond his sixteenth year ; nor in that of a
Kshatriya, beyond his twenty-second ; nor in that of a
Vaishya beyond his twenty-fourth 4 This investiture
must be hallowed by tlie communication of the Gciyatri^
the verse of the Vedas esteemed most sacred. The par-
ties who neglect it are to be reckoned apostates and
outcasts, § with whom no connexion is to formed cither
in laAv or affinity, even by Brahmans distressed for sub-
sistence. The sacrificial strings of each class have to
fie formed after a fashion prescribed in the Law Books.
Certain orders as to the clothes to be worn, and the staves
to be carried, issued as authoritative in ancient times are
now in abeyance, though long established custom reigns
supreme in these matters. The brow of every Hindu
must be marked, at least when he is in a state of cere-
monial purit}", with various pigments indicative of his
particular caste, and sectarial connexions as a worship-
j)cr of particular gods and goddesses in their varied
forms. II These marks are spots and dots and figures of
particular size and shape, and lines horizontal and verti-
cal, as the caste regulations may require. An engraving

* Mami, ii. 3G. f Manu, ii. 37. J Mauu, ii. 38.

§ 'TR^r Manu, ii. 39.

II “lie, wlio not entitled to distinguishing marks yet lives by wearing
such marks, takes to himself the sins of those who are entitled to such
marks, and shall be born from the womb of a brute animal,” Manu,
iv. 200.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE FOUR ORIGENAL CASTES. 17

illustrative of some of them is given in one of the plates
of Moor’s Hindu Pantheon. They suggest to a Chris-
tian an apt illustration of the figurative expression of
the Book of Revelation, the “ mark of the beast in the
forehead.”

HI. — Orthodox View of the Four Original Castes
OF THE Hindus.

According to the opinions of the Hindus deemed by
them orthodox, the original Castes were four in number, — ■
that of the Brd/tmans, or priestly class ; that of the
Kshatriyas, or warrior class ; that of the Vaishyas, or
Mercantile and Agricultural class ; and that of the Shn-
dras, or Servile Class.

“For the sake of preserving the universe,” says Mann,
“the Being supremely glorious allotted separate duties to
those who sprang respectively from his mouth, his arm,
his thigh, and his foot. To Brdhnans he assigned the
duties of reading [the Veda], and teaching it, of sacrific-
ing, of assisting others to sacrifice, of giving alms, and
of receiving gifts.'”' To defend tlie peojde, to give alms,
to sacrifice, to read [the Veda], to shun the allurements
of sexual gratification, are in a few words, tlie duties of a
Kshatriya. To keep herds of cattle, to bestow largesses,
to sacrifice, to read the scripture, to cai’ry on trade, to lend
at interest, are the duties of a Vaishyn. One principal
duty the Supreme Ruler assigns to a Shudra ; naine-
1}’, to serve the before-mentioned classeSj^ithcut depre-

* Tliese are the Six constituted tVoiks of the Biahm ins, techni-
cally denominated by them Tfd, IIRUC, sUT’Id, and

Td.

AVIIAT CASTE IS.

ciating' their worth.* A similar origin and similar duties
are ascribed to tl)e Four Castes in the Shanti Parva of
the Mahabharata ;f in the Matsya, Bhagavata, and several
others of the Pnranas in the Jati-Mala, or Garland of
Castes, of authority in Bengal and the Upper Provinces
of India, quoted by Mr. Colebrooke ;§iii the Jati-Viveka,
or Discrimination of Castes, of authority in the West of
India ;11 and in the Sahyadri Khanda of the Skanda Pu-
rana, the great practical authority of the Maratha Brah-
mans.^ This, in fact, is the view taken of the origin of
the four classes by the Caste system now prevalent
throuo-htout the whole of India. All other passages of-
the vShastras, with representations on the sulqect of a
different character, — and such there are in abundance,

* I\[ami i. 87-91 • In tins and other quotations from the Hindu
T.aw Booh, I mainly follow Sir William Jones, omitting such of his
expletives as arc not warranted by the text, and bringing the render-
ings sometimes closer to the original.

t Mahabharata, Shanti Parva adh. 72. v. 2723. Different ac-
counts of the origin of Caste are given in other worhs, including the
Pnraoas and the Mahabharata, which, to use the words of Dr. John
]\[uir, (Original Sanshrit Texts p. 37) “ is made up of very heterogene-
ous elements, the. products of different ages, and re})rcsenting widely
different dogmatical tendencies which have been thrown together by
the successive compilers or editors of the work without any regard to
their mutual consistentcy.”

In the iSIatsya (adh. 4), A'amdeva is the name given to the god
{hharjavun, “ the Avorshiiifuf’) Avho (as Brahma, according to the
context) created the Castes: — fTSTR

In the Bh^avata, the most orthodo.x view
of the origin of Caste is given in Skanda iii. adh. v. 33-31.

§ Colcbrookc's Essays, vol. ii. p. 177.

II There are two forms of this work now before me, the larger and
smaller.

^ Saliyadri Khamla, A’di Pahasya, Chap. 2o.

ORTHODOX VIEW OE THE miAIOIAX.

as will afterwards appear — arc contorted and interpreted
in tlie light of the dogmas here announced. Caste, to
the ])resent day, adheres to its claims as set forth in
Manu, without essential compromise or concession.

To understand the subject of Caste, then, eve have
to keep the statements now cjuoted constantly in viewn
For the same purpose, we have to look to the informa-
tion given in detail in the Slutstras of the Hindus res-
pecting the prerogatives, privileges, and duties of these
the j)rimary divisions of Caste, and which is still approv-
ed and acted u])on, with very slight modifications in
form, throughout the whole country. This we attempt
concisely to do.

1. We give a miniature picture, in the first instance
of the Brahman.

The Shiistras dwell much on the pre-eminence of
the Brahman, both by birth and original endowments,
above all the other classes of man. “ Since the Brah-
man sprang from the most excellent part, since he was
the first born, and since he possesses the Veda, he is by
right the chief of this whole creation.” “Him, the Being
who exists of himself produced in the beginning from
his own mouth, that, having performed holy rites,
he might present clarified butter to the gods, and cakes
of rice to the progenitors of mankind, for the preser-
vation of this AYorld. What created being then can
surpass Him, with whose mouth the gods of the firma-
ment continually feast on clarified butter, and the manes
of ancestors, on hallowed cakes ? The very birth of
Brahmans is a constant incarnation of Dharma, (God of
religion ;) for the Brahman is horn to promote religion,
and to procure ultimate happiness. AVhen a Brahman

WHAT CASTE IS.

springs to lig'lit, he is horn above tlie Avorld, the cliief of
all creatures, assigned to guard the treasury of duties,
religions and civil. Whatever exists in the universe, is
all in effect,* the wealth of the Brahman, since the Brah-
man is entitled to it all hy his primogeniture and emi-
nence of birth. The Bnlhinan eats but his own food;
wears his own apparel ; and bestows but his own in alms:
through the benevolence of the Brahman indeed, other
mortals enjoy life.”'" His inherent qualities, however
sparingly they may be developed, are “ quiescence, self-
control, devotion, purity, patience, rectitude, secular
and sacred understanding, the recognition of spiritual
existence, and the inborn-disposition to serve Brahma.”!
In every member of his body, power and glory are resid-
ent. The purifying Ganges is in his right ear ; his
mouth is that of God himself ; the devouring fire is
in his hand ; the holy Hrthas, or places of pilgrimage
are in his right foot the cow-of-plenty (kdmadhenu )
from which all desires may be satisfied, is in the hairs of
his body. The Brahman is the “first-born,” by nature
( agrajanma ); the “ twice-born” {duija), by the sacra-
ment of the maiinji ; the “ deity-on-earth” {bJmdeva),
by his divine status ; and the intelligent one {yipra), hv
his innate comprehension. §

^ ..... o — common synonyms of the Amarkosha.

Ivhanda ii, brahmavarga 4.

§ The following verse from the Tlrtha Mahatmya has become po-
pular ; —

trrrT frlqr'rT firR ifr^irR unrc l
URC uf #RrR TT r>irw ii

All the Ttrthas in the world are in the ocean ;

All the Tirthaa in the ocean are in the Brahman’s right foot.

f Bhagavad-Gita, xviii. 42.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE BRAHMAN.

The Brahman, thus exalted in original position, is ac-
cording to the Sinistra, superior to all law, even of a
moral character, whenever it clashes with his wordly in-
terests. Even truth and honesty must be dispensed with
for his peculiar advantage. “ In tlie case of sensual
gratifications,” says ]\lanu, of marriages, of food eaten
by cows, of fuel for a sacrifice, of benefit or protection
accruing to a Brahman, there is no sin in an oath.”* “ A
Brahman” says the same autliorit}^ “ may live by rita
and amrita, or by mrita and pramrita, or even by sat-
yamrita (truth and faJseliood); ‘but never let him
subsist by dog-living’ (hired service.)”! “A Brahman
may without hesitation take the property of a Shudra.
He (the Shudra) has, indeed, nothing of his own ; his
master may, doubtless, take his property. To this in-
justice, too, the most horrid cruelty may in his case be
added ; for of the most barbarous treatment of the lower
orders, and, unbecoming leniency to Brtdimans, the Hin-
du sacred writings are in no degree ashamed. The}' actu-
ally enjoin this atrocious despitefulness. “ A priest shall
be fined five hundred {panas), if he slander a soldier ;
twenty-five, if a merchant ; and twelve, if he slander a
man of the servile class. For abusing one of the same
class, a twice-born man shall be fined only twelve ; but
for ribaldry not to be uttered, even that shall be dou-

Hence, the readiness to taste the water in which a Brilhinan has
washed his foot. In the Padma Parana (Kriya yad)iasara, xx) it is said,

r^JT'Trfr?’^ ?T'TJTr^^5rr:| fwpj ||

— The bearer of a drop of water rvhich has been in contact with a
Brahman’s foot has all the sins of his body thereby destroyed.

* Mann, viii. 112. f Mann, iv. 4. 1 Mann, viii. 417.

WHAT CASTE IS.

l)led. A once born man, who insults the twice-born
with gross invectives, ought to have his tongue slit ; for
lie sprang from the lowest part of Brahm^. If he men-
tion their name and class with contumely, as if he say
‘Oil! Devadatta’ (useless gift of God!) an iron style,
ten fino’crs lono' shall betliurst red hot into his mouth.”
“ Shovdd he, through pride, give instructions to priests
concerning their duty, let the king order some hot oil to
be drojiped into his moutli and ear.”^ ‘^A man of the
lowest class, who shall insolently place himself on the
same seat Avith one of the highest, shall either be
banished. Avith a mark on his hinder part or the king
shall cause a gash to be made on his buttock ; should
he s|)it on him through pride, the king shall order
both of his lips to be gashed; should he. .[decency
requires the suppression of what here folloAvs.] If he
seize the Brahman by the locks, or by the feet, or by
the beard, or by the throat, or by the scrotum, let
the king Avithout hesitation cause incision to be made
in his hands.”! Ignominious tonsure is ordained, instead
of capital punishment, for an adulterer of the priestly
class; Avhile the punishment of other classes in this case
may extend to loss of life. ^‘Xevcr shall a king sla}'-
a Brahman, though convicted of all possible crimes;
let him banish the offender from his realm ; but Avith all
his property secure and his body unhurt. No greater
crime is knoAvn on earth than slaying a Brahman ; and
the king, therefore, must not eA^en form in his mind an
idea of killing a priest.”t “ A Brahman, Avho, by his

* Manu, viii. 268-272. f Maim, viii. 281-3-28.

1 Maim, viii. 379-381.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE liRAIDIAX.

power and through avarice, shall cause twice-born men,
girt with the sacrificial thread, to perform servile acts,
with their consent, shall be fined b}'^ tlic king six hund-
red But a man of the servile class, whether

bought or unbought, he may compel to perform servile
duty ; because such a man was created by the self-exist-
ent for the purpose of serving Brahmans. A Shudra,
though emancipated by his master, is not released from
a state of servitude : for of a state which is natural to
him, by whom can he be divested ?”* The Brahman,
even, is the adjudicator in his own cause, and need make
no complaint to royal authorities for the punishment
of his enemies, it being left free to himself to take ven-
geance, t

The Brahmans, as themselves the great authors of the
preceptive parts of the Hindu Shastras, have no feeling
of shame whatever in stating their pretensions and urg-
ing their prerogatives. Only they must now read and
interpret the Veda, wdiich they profess to be the highest
revelation of the will of God. Their wrath is as dread-
fid as that of the gods in heaven. They and their
wives, and daughters, are to be worshipped as gods on
earth. They allege that they have in many instances,

* Manu, viii. 124-1-t. f Jranu, xi. 31-32.

I jwr: TCfi T4T “In all ways, Brahmans are to

be worshipped: they are a Supreme Divinity.” Manu, ix. 318. In the
Fadma Parana (Kriya yadnasara, xx) it is said, “ The good man who
worships a Brahman, moving round him to the right hand, obtains
the merit of himself going round the seven dwipas (insular continents)
of the world.” In the same Avork, it is said, that *• immoral Brahmans
are to be Avorshipped, but not Shudras though subduing tlieir passions:
the coAv that eats things not to be eaten is better than the soav of good
intent.”

WHAT CASTE IS.

kicked, and beaten, and cursed, and frightened, and de-
graded the highest deities, and distressed and destroyed
their children. One of their number, Kashyapa, they tell
ns, was the parent of the sim, and another, of the
moon. Others of them, they hold, wrought great mar-
vels in creation and formation. 13rihaspati, the instruc-
tor of the gods, is said l)y them to have turned the moon
into a cinder, for two kalpas of enormous length ; and to
retain his power over it by covering it with rust, when it
assumes a ruddy appearance. VishvaJcarma, they declare,
dipt off the hands and feet of the sun, to make it round,
and cut it also into twelve pieces, in which it appears in
the twelv'e signs of the zodiac. The same individual, the
architect of the gods, they assert, formed heaven ; and
another of his caste manufactured a child of grass, which
Sita, the Avife of Rama, could not distinguish from her
own son. Kashyapa, already mentioned, they make,
through his different Avives, the parent of foAA'ls, of beasts
of prey, of buffaloes, coays, and other cloA cn-footed ani-
mals ; of haAvks, vultures, and other similar birds ; of the
Apsaras, or water-nj-mphs, serpents, and other reptiles ; of
trees ; of evil beings ; of the Gandharvas, and of animals
Avith hoofs,* He, also, they tell us, made fire ; Avhile
Bhriyii imparted to it its propertj'^ of consumption; and
gUA'e it its capability of extinction ; and Ayastya,
the great Brahman missionary to the South of India,
swalloAved up the ocean at three sips, and then passed
it impregnated Avith salt. The achievements of the great
Brahmans here referred to are thus alluded to by the
Hindu lawgiver: — “ 4Vho Avithout perishing could pro-

* Bhagavuti I’uraiiu, vi. G ; 2 3-28.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE BRAHMAX.

Yoke those holy men by whom the all-devouring fire was
created, the sea with watei’s not drinkable, and the moon
with its wane and increase? what prince could gain wealth
by oppressing those, who, if angry, could frame other
worlds and regents of worlds, and could o-ive beino' to
new gods and mortals ? W hat man, desirous of life,
would injure those by the aid of whom worlds and gods
perpetually exist.”* The following syllogism has gained
universal currency in India : —

The whole world is under the power of the gods,

The gods are under the power of the mantras,

The mantras are under the power of the Brahman ;

The Brahman is therefore our God.”f

These fabrications, which appear to us so ridiculous,
were intended to secure to the Brahmans veneration and
awe. The endeavour, also, has been made in the Shas-
tra to secure to them their lives. They must not be kill-
ed, as we have seen, for the most enormous offences.
When an individual weeps for any person whom they
may have killed, he must make an atonement for his in-
firmity. The goddess Durgd is pleased with the blood of
a man a thousand years ; but no Brahman must be sa-
crificed to her. Garuda, the bearer of Vishnu, used to
eat every sort of creatures, except Brahmans, who, if
swallowed, would have caused an insufferable pain in his
stomach, as is said to have been exemplified on a particu-
lar occasion. While Shudras may offer themselves as sa-
crifices by what is called the Kdmya marana (voluntary

« Manu, ix. 314-316.

? ^ ar^T'TTvfRr wcfi'jfr w ttt'H'

WHAT CASTE IS.

death), Brahmans are not required to make any such
consecration of themselves. “ A twice-born man,” says
Mann, “ who barely assaults a Brahman with an inten-
tion to hurt him shall be whirled about for a century in
the hell named Tdmisra ; but having smitten him in an-
ger, and by design, even with a blade of grass, he shall
be born in one and twenty transmigrations, from the
wombs of impure quadrupeds.”* Life, however, must
not only be preserved exceptionally for the favoured ;
but it must be rendered comfortable. The Brahmans
get all the offerings made at the temples; and the most
heinous sins are atoned for by giving them presents. If
a man sell his cow, he will go to hell ; if he give her in
donation to a Brahman he will go to heaven. If on
Ganga’s anniversary whole villages be given to Brah-
mans, the person presenting them will acquire all the
merit which can be obtained : his body will be a million
of times more glorious than the sun ; he will have a mil-
lion of virgins, many carriages, and palanquins with
jewels ; and he will live in heaven with his father as
man}’ years as there are particles in the land given to
Brahmans. Land given to Brahmans secures heaven ;
a red cow, a safe passage across the boiling infernal
river, Vaitarani; a house, a heavenly palace ; an um-
brella, freedom from scorching heat ; shoes, freedom
from pain when walking ; perfumes, freedom from
offensive smells ; feasting of Brahmans, particularly at
births, marriages and deaths, the highest merit. If
a house be defiled by an unclean bird sitting down
upon it, it becomes pure when presented to a Brah-
man. A proper gift to a Brahman on a deathbed will

« Mann, iv. 165-166.

ORTHODOX VIEW OE THE RRAHMAX. ^7

sdcure heaven to a malefactor. The Brahmans oblige
the other castes, in fact, when they condescend to receive
their presents.* Money given to them should be dipped
in water, lest the latent glory of their hands should burst
forth and consume the donor.t

i\Iost ob\dous is it that the legislation of the Brah-
mans, embracing such matters and supported by such
legends as those now alluded to, has originated exclusive-
ly with their own body. Its partialities, and preferences,
and prejudices are of the grossest character. Along
with these enormous faults, however, it is but fair to look
at the strict discipline, continuous ceremoniousness, and
rio-id austerities, which in certain circumstances, — associ-
ated with numerous puerilities, — it has prescribed for its
favourites.

In the first A shrama, or Order, that of the Brtihmd-
chcirl, or Pupil, the Brahman boy, must render the
greatest reverence and attention to his priestly instruc-
tor, observing constant oblations, and practising unceas-
ing restraints of his appetites- His religious exercises
must commence with the morning twilight ; and, except
during the times of study and eating, they must be con-

* The imparting of gifts {ddna) is quite a science according to the
institutions of Caste, which, as far as this matter is concerned, are
collected and explained, in all their particularities, in the Law Book
entitled the Dana Mayitkha.

f In thus mentioning the pretensions of the Brahmans, I have avail-
ed myself of and expanded the notices contained in my two Exposures
of Hinduism in reply to Brahmanical controversialists. To natives of
India acquainted with the Marathi language I would warmly recom-
mend IMr. Nesbit’s tract on the Brahman’s Claims, Avhich appear-
ed after the Exposures were published, and in which some of the
popular aspects of the subject are commented on in a telling way.

WHAT CASIK IS,

tiimed throughout the day. “Let the twice-born youth,”
it is said, “who has been girt with the sacrificial cord,
collect wood for the holy tire, beg food of his relations,
sleep on a low bed, and perform such offices as may
please his preceptor, until his return to the house of his
natural father.”* With devotion and austerities he is
ordered to study the Veda. He is commanded to ab-
stain from honey, flesh, perfumes, garlands, vegetable
juices, women, acidulated substances, the killing of
animated beings, unguents for his limbs, black powder
for his eyes, wearing sandals, using an umbrella, sensual
desires, wrath, covetousness, dancing, singing, dice,
disputes, detraction, and falsehood. t He is enjoined to
sleep alone, and to perform the duty of a religious
mendicant.

In the second Order, that of the Gnhastha or House-
holder, after the Brahman has chosen, or got chosen,
for his wife, a girl whose form has no defect, who has
an agreeable name, who walks like a goose,J or young
elephant, whose hair and teeth are moderate in quantity,
and whose body is distinguished by softness, and who,
in the case of the first marriage at least, should be
of the Brahman class § he should live with her in the
strictest fidelity, giving her elegant attire, though not
from the most exalted motive,^ seeking to raise up a
family, embracing especially a son, without whom, na-

* Manu, ii. 108. The other statements here made are on the au-
thority of the context.

f Manu, ii. 167-178.

I Sir W. Jones makes this a phenicopteros, or adjutant bird. The
Sanskrit, however, is hansa, a geese.

§ Manu, lii. 12, 17, etc.

^ Manu, in. 68.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE RKAIDIxVX.

tural or adopted, the salvation of a father cannot be
effected.* He has to practise unceasingly various
minute and burdensome rites and ceremonies, connected
witli study ; oblations to fire ; the presentation of food
to spirits, through animated beings, particularly the
“twice-bom;” the entertainment of Brahmanical guests ;
and the ofl'erinof of rice and water to the manes of
ancestors-t At the Shn'iddhas, or reverential feasts and
services performed either for ancestors or for gods, he
has to avoid inviting or holding intercourse with par-
ties labouring under any disease, deformity, impotency,
or defect (held under the doctrine of the metempsycosis
to be the consequence of past crimes), despising Brah-
manical institutes, or following employments unconge-
nial with the Brahmanical doctrines and practices, or
guilty of crime^ During the feasting, he has to pre-
serve his mind in absolute composure, for the shedding

* Thougli tlie Sanskrit for son, is putra, tlie reciprocal word for
pitar, {Lat. pater a father,) the following fanciful derivation of it, found-
ed on this doctrine, is given by Manu, (ix. 138) : — “ Since the son de-
livers ( trdijate) relieves his father from the hell named put, he was
therefore called patra by Brahma himself !”

+ Manu, iii. 70, et seq.

I Among the parties thus to be avoided are the attendants upon
images {demlaka), the sellers of flesh, the party supporting himself by
trafiic, a young brother married before the elder or vice versa, a
dancer, the husband of a Shudra, the ptipil or preceptor of a Shiidra,
a seller of the moon-plant (used in sacrifices), a navigator of the ocean,
an encomiast, an oilman, a maker of bows and arrows, a father in-
stmcted in the Veda by his son, a tamer of elephants, bulls, horses or
camels, an astrologer, a keeper of birds, a breeder of sporting dogs, a
shepherd, a keeper of buflalocs, the husljand of a twice-manied
woman- Manu, iii. 150-107.

WHAT CASTE IS.

of a tear would send the messes before him to restless
spirits ; anger, to foes; falsehood, to dogs; contact with
the foot (pada-sparsha), to Rakshasas ; and agitation,
to scoundrels.* * * § At the same time, he has to reo-ale his
silent guests with readings from the Yeda, from the in-
stitutes of law {Dharma- Shastra) , from stories, from
historical poems {Itihdsa, generally applied to the Ma-
habharata,) from antiquities {Piirdnas), and from other
scriptures. t At these ceremonial offerings animal food,
to be ate by the company, is declared to be of more avail
in the work of propitiation than vegetables, a fact which
the Brahmans of the present day are shy in admitting.^
He has to be most particular about the times of the
month and day of his religious services. “He must live,
Avith no injury, or AAutli the least possible injury, to ani-
mated beings, by pursuing those means of gaining sub-
sistence Avhich are strictly prescribed by law, except in
times of distress. ”§ He has to keep his hair, nails, and

* Manu, iii. 230. f Ibid. iii. 232.

t “ The ancestors of men are satisfied a whole month with tila, rice,
barlej’, black lentils or vetches, water, roots, and fruit, given with
prescribed ceremonies ; two months, with fish ; three months, Avith
venison ; four Avith mutton ; five, with the flesh of such birds as the
tAvice-born may eat ; six months, Avith the flesh of kids ; seA^en, AA'ith
that of spotted deer, or the antelope, called ena ; nine AA'ith that of the

7-uru ; ten months are they satisfied Avith the flesh of Avild boars and
Avild buffaloes; eleA'en Avith that of rabits or hares, and of tortoises; a
Avhole year with the milk of coavs, and food made of that milk ; from
the flesh of the long-eared AA'hite goat, their satisfaction endures tAA^elve
A cars.” Manu, iii. 267-271.

§ Manu, iv. 2. The fourth chapter in many respects coiTesponds
with the third. They appear to me to have originally belonged to tAvo
different Codes.

UETIIODOX VIEW OF THE BRAHMAN. 31

beard clipped, his passions subdued ; his mantle, white;
and his body pure/ He must not gaze on the sun
whether rising or setting (unless in religious seiwices), or
eclipsed, or reflected in water, or advanced to the middle
of the sky. He must be reseiwed in his intercourse with
his wife, and- neither eat with her, nor see her eating. He
must neither dishonour earth, nor fire, nor water. He
must not dwell under the govei’nment of a Shudra. He
must neither dance nor sing, nor play on musical instru-
ments or with dice. He must not use the clothes or ves-
sels which have been used by another, till they are
purified. The beasts ■with which he travels must be
sound, and well trained; and he must nevxr bestride a
member of the bovine race. He must not cut his own
nails or hairs. He has to be sober in his speech and
conduct. He has to accept gifts only from Ksha-
tiiyas and Vaishyas; and never from Shudras.t He has
to obseiwe religious ceremonies at night (when awake),
and at morn, noon, and evening. He has to keep at a
distance from the destroyers of animals and vegetable
seeds not simply used in food. He must suspend the
reading of the Vedas during thunder, rain, earthquakes,
and other atmospheric and terrene changes and move-
ments. He must intermit the reading of the V eda, for a
day and night when a beast of labour, a frog, a cat, a
dog, or a snake passes between him and his pupil.;];
He is commanded to abstain from iniquity, lest he

* Manu, iv. 35-37.

t This is not now the case, as will be afterwards explained,
t I once asked a learned Pandit, what inference he was disposed to
draw from this injunction. He very adroitly said, “I should infer
that the teacher and pupil shoxrld sit very closely together!"

WHAT CASTE IS.

should be punished for it either in his own person or
in those of his descendants. His moral duties he has
to prefer to his ceremonial acts, though great excep-
tions, elsewhere noticed, are made to this rule- He
is not permitted to take food from a servile man,
except raw grain for a single night when it may
l>e necessary for the support of his life. He has to be
liberal in giving gifts to those deserving of benevolence,
and lie is not be too proud of his charity. “By false-
hood, sacrifice becomes vain ; by pride, austerities go for
nought ; by the dishonour of priests, life is diminished ;
and by the display of charity, its frait is destroyed.”*
In regard to food, the householder, as well as other
Brahmans, has to show the greatest scmpulosity. He
must avoid eating garlic, onions, leeks, and mush-
rooms,! and all vegetables raised in dung, though the
vegetable processes know no impurity ; red gums and
resins, supposed to be like the blood of animals; and
carnivorous birds and quadrupeds, and many others of
different orders. He might, according to one law, par-
take of the hedgehog, porcupine, some species of lizards,
hares, and all quadrupeds, camels excepted, which have

* Mann, iv. 20t. See antliorities for the preceding statements
in the context.

t It is difficult to see the reason of the interdiction of the use of
these vegetables, unless perhaps it is to be found in their strong smell,
especially when imperfectly cooked. The crime of eating them seems
to have been a peculiarly heinoiis one with the Hindu legislators.
■“ The twice-born who has intentionally eaten a mushroom, the flesh of
a, tame-hog, or a tame-cock, a leek, or an onion, or garlic, is degrad-
ed immediately.” Atonements are available for undesigned eating.
Afanu, V. 19-20.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE BRAHMAN-

but one row of teeth.* According to another, he
might use considerable latitude in the use of flesh-meat :
— “No sin is committed by him who, having honour-
ed the deities and the manes, eats flesh-meat Avhich
he has bought, himself acquired, or had presented to him
by another.”t Yet, Avithout these religious rites, he
Avould contract great sin by encouraging the slaughter of
animals, which, in the main, is strongly disapproved of
by the legislators and not noAV generally resorted to.|
He has to submit to great inconveniences from ceremo-
nial defilement caused by the birth and death of rela-
tives and connections of various degrees, and by the
touch of the lowly Chandala, and of all parties in a
state of ceremonial impurity. § The duties prescribed
for the Brahman householder, in short, are such as must
keep him ever busy, ever on the alert, and ever scru-
pulous and cautious.

The Vdnajprastha, the Hermit of the Wilderness, the
Brahman in the third A'shrama, must be a vast deal more
selfdenied and restricted than the Householder. At
the approach of old age he must abandon his family and

* Manu, V. 18. f Manu, v. 32.

I The general doctrine of Manu on this subject may be understood
from the Ibllowing passages : — “ Flesh-meat cannot be procured with-
out injury to animals, and the slaughter of animals obstructs the
path to beatitude; from flesh-meat therefore let man abstain. He who
consents to the death of an animal, he who kills it, he who dissects it,
he who buys it, he Avho sells it, he who dresses it, he who serves ifc
up, and he who makes it his food ; these are eight principals in the
slaughter.” Manu, v. 48-51.

§ Manu, V. 85, et seq. For the special laws on these matters, see
the Mayukha under Shaucha and Ashaucha (purity and impurity).

^rHAT CASTE IS.

worldly affairs. He must not only feed on herbs, ffuits,
and roots, but use them in sacrifice. He must wear a
black antelope’s hide, or a vesture of the bark of a tree ;
and suffer his hair, beard, and nails to grow continually.
He must be constantly engaged in reading the Veda,
and in other religious exercises. His devotion must be
varied by austerities. “Let him slide backwards and
forAvards on the gTound ; or let him stand a whole day
on tiptoe ; or let him continue in motiorr rising’ and sit-
tirrg alter-nately ; birt at surrrise, at noon, and at sunset,
let him go to the waters and bathe- Irr the hot season
let him sit exposed to five fires; in the rairrs let him
stand rrncovered where the clouds pour the heaviest
showers ; in the cold season (when the evaporation
cairsed by the dry air is excessive) let hinr wear humid
vesture; and let him encrease by degrees the austerity
of his devotion.”' Abandorring the use of all means
of gratification, he rrrust for the pur-pose of uniting his
soul with the Divine Spirit, errgage irr meditation, and
study the sacred Upanis^hach, or philosophical pantheis-
tic treatises. Shuffling off his body, if he is attacked
by disease by any of these rrreans, — he is given to urr-
derstand, — he will rise to exaltation irr the divirre es-
serrce.t

The Sannijasi, or Arrcfiorite, in the foirrth A 'shrama,
has to improve uporr the course now^ meirtiorred, practis-
ifig contemplation, however, more tharr atrsterities.
Dehghted with meditating orr the Supreme Spirit, beiirg
fixed in such meditatiorr, v.ithout needing anything
earthly, withoirt one seirsrral desire, Avithoutany cornparr-

“ Manu, vi. 22-2-3.

f Manu, vi. 32, etc,

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE P.RAHAIAX

ion to his own soul, let him live in this world seeking
the bliss of the next, “absolute absorption.” “His
hair, nails, and beard being clipped, bearing with him
a dish, a staff, and a waterpot, his whole mind being
fixed on God, let him wander about continually, with-
out giving pain to living beings,”"^ either vegetable or
animal. Once a day only he has to ask for food ; and
that ought to be at a late hour. Meditating [in gross
delusion] on the identity of his outi spirit with that of
the Supreme, and seeking reunion, he is to be ready
cheerfully to leave the cumbersome and miserable body,!

The profession by the Bralmians, that, with certain
nonessential modifications, thev have still this sacred cha-
racter, and that they follow these injunctions, esteemed
divine, gives them a powerful hold of the mind of India,
C[uite independently of their pretensions to pre-eminence
which we have noticed at the commencement of this
heading. Its natural effects are often too little regarded
in the estimate of the religious and social forces by
which we are surrounded in India. With Brahmanical
discipline and pursuits, there is much sympathy, even
on the part of those large portions of the community''
which are legally debarred from participating in them.
There is an admiration and approval of the Brahman
among the people, as well as much dread and distmst of
him, and contempt of him for his extravagant claims
in connexion with his status and prerogatives. Hence,

* Mann, vi. 49-52.

t The notice taken of the four ashrams in the Puranas, is quite accord-
ant with that of the Law Books. See, for exampk, Wilson’s Vishnu
Parana, pp. 294-296

WII AT CASTE IS-

-3G

the attempt, in late centuries especially, of multitudes
precluded from all priestly services, to become wander-
ing saints and devotees of various orders and grades.
There is very great deference shown to the Brahman,
even in the view of the fact that he is now left with-
out a legal remedy for enforcing in his own behalf
the unjust laws which he has made connected with his
own life, honor, and support. I add another observa-
tion to this remark. I have a strong impression on my
mind that a great deal of the Brahmanical legislation
was, from the first, intended only for effect, and that it
was never designed to be carried into execution as far
as the priestly practice itself was concerned. An intel-
ligent native writer in the Calcutta Review justly sa}"s,
“Those who arrogate to themselves great honors, must
at least profess to be guided by a more elevated stand-
ard of duty than their neighbours. A man who prides
himself on the greatness of his origin must admit, that
it behoveth him to observe higher principles of morali-
ty, than those over whom he affects superiority. The
Brahmans have accordingly laid down severe rules for
tlie government of their order. Whether the authors of
the Shastras intended, that their austere rules should be
followed out in practice, or whether they merely propos-
ed to exhibit their idea of priestly dignity without intend-
ing to realize it, it k not easy to determine. One thing,
however, is certain, that as the Brahman acknowledged
no earthly superior, he had little apprehension of his de-
linquencies being severely visited. He could not be
called to account for departing from his maxims, because
no one was at liberty to judge him. An austere rule of
life could therefore prove no greater restraint on his in-

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE KSIIATllTYA.

clinations, than he himself [or the priestly community
of -which he was a member] chose to allow *”

2. From the Brahman, we pass to the Kshatriya,
the Warrior, 'or rather, as will be afterwards explained,
the Ruler or Prince.

According to the orthodox view of Caste, the Ksha-
triya is derived from the arms of the god Brahma, f in
the same way as the Brahman is derived from his liead.
This explanation of the origin of the Kshatriya, how-
ever, is not consistently adhered to, even in the Law
Books, which are the great support of the Caste system.
In the seventh chapter of the Code of Manu, which is
evidently intended for the use of the ruling authorities,
the ereation and glory of the prince is thus set forth : —
“ Since the -vsmrld destitute of a king quaked on all
sides, the Lord created a king for the maintenance
of this system, both religious and civil, forming him
of eternal particlest drawn from [the gods] Indra,
Anila (Vayu), Yama, Arka (Surya), Agni, Varuna,
Chandra, and Vittesha (Kuvera) : and since a king was
composed of particles drawn from these chief guar-
dian deities, he consequently surpa,sses all beings in
glory. Like the sun, he burns eyes and hearts ; nor
can any human creatures on earth gaze on him. He is
fire and air; he, both sun and moon ; he the god of retri-
butive justice (Yama) ; he the god of w'ealth (Kuvera) ;
he the regent of waters (Varuna); he the lord of the firm-
ament. A king, even though a child, must not be

* Calcutta Review, 1851, p. 53. I See above, page 17.

t Mdtra in the singular, corresponding (etymologically) with the
Latin materia and our own matter.

WHAT CASTE IS.

treated liglitly, from an idea tliat he is a mere mortal ;
no, he is a powerful divinit}'^ who appears in human-
shape.”" “ The natural duties of the Kshatriya,” ac-
cording to the Bhagavad-Gita, “ are heroism, splendour,
pertinacity, policy, not fleeing in battle, liberality, and
fitness to govern.”t Other \dews of his creation and glory
will afterwards fall to be alluded to. The Brahmans, while
setting forth their own pre-eminence and superiority,
knew how to flatter the powerful and wealthy of their
own race, in varied ways not very consistent with the
o-eneral doo’matic announcements which were most con-
sistent w'ith the religious system wdiich they, sought to
uphold.

The Kshatriya, according to what has now been said,
is set forth in the Law Books as the essence of majesty
and power; and as the great dispenser ot justice, particu-
larly in the matter of punishment, of which he is the per-
sonal manifestation {purushodanda), and which, though
needed both by gods and men, is to be leniently applied
to Brahmans.| He is to be the protector of the various
Castes attending to their prescribed duties. § In dis-
charging his functions, he has to abide by the decision of
learned Brahmans.1l He must cultivate humility and be
warned by the examples of kings who, in the lack of it,
have involved themselves in ruin. He is enjoined to seek
sacred and secular knowledge from the Brahmans, and

* ]\Ianu, vii. 3-8. Some of the gods here mentioned are contem-
plated in aspects different from those in which they are exhibited in
the Vedas.

t Bhagavad-Gita, xviii. 43.

§ Mann, vii. 35.

I jMann, vii. 17-32.
^ Ibid. vii. 37.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE KSHATIHYA.

to avoid various kinds of immoralities and sensualities.

He is recommended to choose eight ministers, some of
whom are to be versed in the sacred books, and others, in «
the art of war. The ambassador ( data ) selected by
him should be skilled in all the Shastras. He should
live in a capital surrounded by a desert, and otherways
difficult of approach, and well-defended by fortifications,
his own palace being in its centre. His wife should be of
his own class ( varna), and of good descent and agreeable
person. He must appoint a domestic priest (purolntd*).
and be liberal in sacrifices and in gifts to Brahmans.

“An offering in the mouth of a Brahman,” he is told;

“is far better than offerings to holy fires; it never drops;
it never dries; it is never consumed. ”f In battle he
must be brave, resolute, and generous. He must subor-
dinate to one another the various districts in his reedm.

He must raise taxes from his subjects according to
their means; but, though even dying with want, he
must not receive any tax from a Brahman learned in
the Vedas, while at the same time he must suffer
no such Brahman to die of hunger, j; The season of
the year most favourable for weather and croj)s, he
must choose for his warlike campaigns. His troops he
lias to march in varied lines, and according to vai'ied
fioures,. with considerable skill, formino:, when thouolit
expedient, a van, a reargaiard, and a mainbody, and also
wings and a centre. His ordinary soldiers, — who it would
appear, might have been of varied ti’ibes and castes, —
he was to dispose of in battle according to their capaci-
ties. “ Men born in Kurukslietra, in Matsya, in Pan-

* Literally, a foreuiaa. f Mann, vii. 84.

\ IMaiiu, vii.

WHAT CASTE IS.

chala, and in Shiirasena,” he is required to engage in
the van, and other men who are tall and lio'ht.”* He
has to respect the deities and Brahmans of conquered
countries, and to appoint over them a prince of his own
race ( vansha). To his neighbours who support his cause,
he has to practise kindness; and for self-preservation, he
has to be ready to part with his dominions and even with
his family wdien required. “Against misfortune let him
jireserve his wealth ; at the expense of his wealth, let him
preserve his wife ; but at all events let him preserve
himself, even at the hazard of his wife and riches.”! His

* Manu, vii. 193.

f Manu, vii. 213. The principle here involved is applied to all
classes of the Hindus as well as to Kshatriyas. The Brahmans have
embodied it in the following Sanskrit proverb : —

'TTTf ^ 5TCC 'TT: H

“ Preserve your wife, preserve you pelf ;

But give them both to save yourself :

There's other rvealth, another wife ;

But where is there another life?”

By a slight change (by a Pandit from the West), this wise-saying
can be reversed in favour of the poor wife : —

u^rVrfr ^ i

T^nVr ^ 'IT; IT: l|

“ Preserve your man, preserve your pelf ;

But give them both to save yoru'self;

There’s other wealth, and other men ;

But who shall see this life again?”

For a short comment on these versicles, see a paper by the late Rev.
E. Nesbit in the Oriental Christian Spectator, Sept. 1812.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE KSHATRIYA.

religious and domestic duties be has to attend to in their

own relations. After ablution he has to eat at noon,
taking food prepared by faithful servants skilled in the
differences of times (lucky and unlucky), and hallowed
by texts repulsive of poison. He may then^ divert himself
with his women in the inner apartments, taking due
care, however, lest he should be betrayed by them. At
sunset, after having performed his religious duty, he
should deal with spies and emissaries in retirement.*
When unable personally to inspect his affairs, he may
commit the superintendence of them to a Brahman. t
From the Brahman, but never from a Shudra, he has
to seek the interpretation of law. “ Of that king,
who stupidly looks on while a Shudra decides causes,
the kingdom shall sink like a Cow in deep mire.”| The
king is the guardian of all property, including that of
minors, and the owner of the half of treasure-trove (the
other half belonging to Brahmans) , except that found by
a learned Brahman, who may take it without any deduc-
tion, as he is the lord of all. He also receives the wealth
of all other classes on the failure of heirs, except that of
Brahmans, which must go to their own community
without, in any case, being escheated. § He is the upholder
of the Caste laws, and customs of the various classes of the
community,^ in so far as practised by good men and vir-
tuous Brahmans, and not inconsistent with local usages.
In the dispensation of justice, the king himself is not to
be made a witness ; and he has also to make an exemption,

* Manu, vii. ad finem. f Mann, viii. 9. J Mami, viii. 21.
§ Manu, iv. 189. ^ Manu, viii. 37-38.

WHAT CASTE IS.

generally, in the matter of giving testimony to certain
classes of people, some of whom are thought too humble,
and some too great, to appear as witnesses.* He has to
order the administration of oaths, or ordeals, to competent
witnesses, with considerable solemnity from the Indian
point of view; with a due regard to the comparative dig-
nity of Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras;
and with the recognition of injur}'- said to accrue both
to ancestors and posterity from the speaking of false-
hood, except when a pious motive intervenes, when this
sin is found not to be contracted even by perjury.t The
legislation by which he is to be guided, in these matters, to
use the words of Sir William Jones, is “a system of despo-
tism and priestcraft, both indeed limited by law, but art-
fully conspiring to give mutual support, though with
mutual checks; it is filled with strange conceits in meta-
physics and natural philosophy, with idle superstitions,
and with a scheme of theology most obscurely figurative,
and consequently liable to dangerous misconception ; it
abounds with minute and childish formalities, with cere-
monies generally absurd and often ridiculous ; the punish-
ments are partial and fanciful ; for some crimes dreadfulh'
cruel, for others reprehensibly slight ; and the very mo-
rals, though rigid enough on the whole, are, in one or

* Among the latter class are specified in Manu, (viii. 65) the learn-
'ed in the three Vedas, Brahmans waiting on the sacred fire, and reli-
gious devotees who have abandoned the world. It is Tn consequence
of the principle here involved that the BhaJjd and other natwe mer-
chants of Bombay are claiming the right of their high-priests
(^Maharajas, or great kings !) to decline attendance on the courts of law.

I Manu, viii. 66-112. See also above, p. 21.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE KSHATKIYA.

two instances, (as in the case of light oaths and of pious
purjury) [just alluded to] unaccountably relaxed. It is
interesting- to notice, in the view of these faults and de-
fects, that, in regard to the boundaries of property, evi-
dence taken is to be recorded in writing ;t and that the
lowest classes of the population may be useful in giv-
ing testimony in this matter. Punishments inflicted are
to descend with violence inversely as the station in
caste of the offenders. A Kshatriya defaming a Brah-
man shall be fined a hundred [panas~\ ; a Vaishya,
an hundred and fifty, or two hundred ; bat a Shu-
dra [acting in this way] shall be corporally punished.
A Brahman shall be fined fifty, if he slander a Ksha-
triya ; twenty-five, if a Vaishya ; and twelve, if a Shu-
dra.| Fines for theft are to be inflicted in proportion to
the status in Caste of the party offending.^ Adultery
is be treated with much severity, the punishment being
a cruel death to be inflicted on the lower orders trans-
gressing with the higher. Punishments by kings are
said to form atonements for the guilty. “ Men who
have committed, and have received from kings the pu-
nishment due to them, go to pure heaven, and become as
clear as those who have done well.”^ This dictum, which
removes man from his responsibility to God, has taken
a great hold of the popular mind in India. N ative mu -
sicians attend the capital executions of the vilest crimi-
nals throughout the country, seeking to introduce them
into the other world with joy and rejoicing, simply be-

* Preface to the Institutes of Manu. | Manu,viii. 255-266.

t Manu, viii. 267-268. § Ibid. 337-8. If Manu, Tiii. 318.

WHAT CASTE IS.

causs they view their death by the public sentence of the
law as an atonement for all their transgressions.

It is the duty of the princely Kshatriya to keep the
Castes below himself clo.se to the works respectively pres-
cribed for them. He should order the Vaishya to prac-
tise trade, or money-lending, or agriculture and at-
tendance on cattle ; and the Shudra to act in the service
of the twice-born. It is incumbent upon him to regu-
late all market prices, with a due regard to the interests
of the buyer and seller.'^' This principle of Caste law is
the foundation of the demand often made on govern-
ment to interfere in matters of sale and trade. The
doctrines of Adam Smith were not in vogue when the
laws attributed to Mann were reduced to a Code.

It is also the duty of the Kshatriya to aid the male
portion ofthe community in maintaining its lordship over
the female portion. This is a matter of much consequence
with the Hindus ; and it is so intimately connected with
Caste that it may be proper onwards to devote to it a
separate section of this work-

3. Leaving the Kshatriya, in the meantime, we pro-
ceed to notice the Vaishya, who is the Cattle keeper,
the Agriculturist, and the Merchant.

In a passage in the Code of Manu, already referred
to, it is said that to keep herds of cattle, to bestow
largesses, to sacrifice, to read the scripture, to carry on
trade, to lend at interest, and to cultivate land are the

* Manu, riii. 401. Difficulties in regard to this matter are often
felt by our own officials, particularly in the matter of grain. For hints
as to the removal of these difficulties, see Colonel Sleeman’s Rambles
and Recollections, vol. i. chap. 24.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE VAISHYA-

duties of a Vaiahya”* “The natural duties of the
Vaishya,” says the Bhagavad-Gita, “are agriculture,
keeping of cattle, and the practice -of-merchandise.”t
Respecting these duties, indeed, without any hints as to
their comparative importance, the information of the lat-
er Sanskrit books is throughout self-consistent.

In the Law Books, the general ordinances affecting
the Vaishya are such as the following. After perform-
ing the initiatory sacraments, ending with that of the
sacrificial thread, and marrying a wife of his own class,
he should be attentive to his proper business, especially
that of cattle-keeping, which he is by no means to over-
look, as the Lord-of-men has committed cattle to his
trust in the same way as he has committed men to that
of the Brahman and the Kshatriya. He must never say,
“ I keep charge of no cattle nor must others super-
sede him in this charge while he is willing to undertake
it. With the prices of mercantile commodities he has
to be acquainted, especially of gems, pearls, coral, iron,
cloth, perfumes and liquids. He has to be skilled in
sowing seeds, in the qualities of land, in weights
and measures, in the excellence and defects of articles of
trafl&c, in the advantages and disadvantages of different
districts, in the probable gain and loss on goods, in the
breeding of cattle, in the wages of servants, in the va-
rious languages of men,| in the best places for keeping

* See above, p. 17, where the words “ to cultivate lands” are, by an
error, omitted.

t Bhagavad-Gita, xviii. 43.

t This intimates a diversity of language in Ancient India, and per-
haps in the bordering cou.ntries holding intercourse with it.

WHAT CASTE IS.

goods, and ill all measures for effecting purchase and sale.
The augmentation of his wealth should command his
vigilant care and solicitude, while he is attentive to the
giving of nourishment to all sentient creatures.* Con-
siderable intelligence and ingenuity seem to have been
requisite for the Vaishya’s duties. Let this be marked as
an indication of the state of society when the Hindu
Law Books were composed.

\ . 4. We conclude this sketch by referring to the legal

position of the Shadra.

In illustration of this position, especially when com-
pared with that of his great master, the Brahman, some
notices have already been given by us. The principal
duty assigned to the Shudra is that of serving the
Brahman, the Kshatriya, and the Vaishya, especially
the Brahman, for whose advantage, principally, he has
been created. Throughout the Law Books, he is
viewed as a domestic slave, to whom servitude is natural
and of which he cannot be divested, and whose pro-
peidy even is at the disposal of his master.! From his
daily engagements in the family of his superiors, it is
obvious that ceremonial ablution was not required to
be the consequence of simple contact with him. His
religious degradation, however, is complete according
to Hindu legislation. On the Brahman the following
injunctions are laid in Manu : — “ Let him not give ad-
vice to a Shudra, nor (except to his own servant) what
remains from his own table ; nor clarified batter of
which part has been offered (to the gods), nor let him

* Manu, ix. 326-333.

! See above, pp. 17, 21, 23. Manu viii. 413-114. x. 121-123.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE SlirOHA.

give spiritual counsel to such a man, nor inform him of
the legal expiation for. his sin. Surely -he. who
declares the law^ to a servile man, and he who instructs
him in the mode of expiating sin sinks with that very
man into the hell named Asaimaita.”* A Brahman
is never to be the preceptor of a Shudra.f While the
first part of a Brahman’s compound name should indi-
cate holiness ; of a Kshatriya’s, power; and of a Vai-
shya’s, wealth,— that of a Shiidra should indicate con^
tempt|. The V Ma is never to be read in the presence of
a Shudra ;§ and for him no sacrifice is to be performed.^
“He has no business with solemn rites.”** “They w^ho
receive property from a Shudra for the performance of
rites to consecrated fire are contemned, as ministers of
the base.”tt His gifts, now so acceptable to the Brah-
man, were received of old only in the most limited de-
gree, when the Brahman, who had no other means to live,
might take from him raw grain enough for a single
night. U In one law, it is thus written: — “ Shudras, en-
gaged in religious duties, must perform each month the
ceremony of shaving their heads; their food must be
the orts of Brahmans; and their mode of purification the

’ Manu, iv. 80-81. Sir William Jones, partly on the authority
of Kulluka Bhatta, a modern commentator on Manu, has here made
some interpolations inconsistent with the passage as referring to Brah-
mans, and with its context.

t Manu, iii. 156. f Manu, ii. 31. § Manu, iv. 99.

f Manu, iii. 178. ** Manu, xi. 13. ff Manu, xi. 42.

It Manu, iv. 222. In Manu xi 24. it is said, " Let no Brahman
ever beg a gift from a Shudra; for if he perform a sacrifice after such
Legging, he shall, in the next life, be born a Chandala.”

WHAT CASTE IS-

same with that of a Vaisliya but this legislation is
not consistently regarded. “ A Brahman is purified by
water that reaches his bosom ; a Kshatriya, by water
descending to his throat ; a Vaishya, by water taken
into his mouth ; a Shudra, by water touched by an ex-
tremity.”! Graduation in Caste, indeed, is preserved
in every act and in every ceremony. While, for exam-
ple, the stick with which a Brahman rinses his teeth, is
to be twelve inches long ; that of a Kshatriya is to be
eleven; that of a Vaishya, ten; and that of a Shudra,
nine. When a Brahman, to remove a natural defilement,
is to make five applications of clay ; a Kshatriya is to
make four; a Vaishya, three ; and a Shudra, and a wo-
man, two. I Much is to be found in the “ sacred books”
in the spirit of these injunctions. It is curious to notice
that a Brahman is represented as on a level with a Shu-
dra, in religious status, till his “ new birth from revealed
scripture ;”§ and that he has to view the state of a Shudra
as the ultimatum of his own degradation in the case of
the greatest offences.1I

A In the greatest events of life and death, the privileges
of a Shudra are of a very restricted character. He must
not marry in any Caste superior to his own.** He must

• Manu, V. 40. | Manu, ii. 62.

t Shiva Purana, adh. viii. In this and other chapters of a little
known Purana, there is very curious information respecting the wor-
ship of Shiva and the observances of his votaries.

§ Manu, ii. 172. If See, for example, Manu iii. 17-19.

** Manu, iii. 15. “ A Brahman, if he take a Shudra to his bed as

a first wife, sinks to the regions of torment ; if he beget a child by her
he loses even his priestly rank.’' Ibid. iii. 17.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE SHUDKA. 4i)

aid in carrying the body of a Brahman, though even
that of his master, to the burning or burying-ground, that
the funeral rites may not be hindered and obstructions to
enter heaven may not occur.* 7'he southern gate of a town
(the most remote from the holy north) is that only by
which he can carry his own kinsmen to the grave.f
His morals are not to be strictly looked after- Theft is
less heinous in him than in those above him.| He may
drink the spirit of rice, while it is interdicted to Brah-
mans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas.§ Probably because of
his connexion with Brahmanical households, he ranks
higher than artizans, to whose occupations he may re-
sort when tormented by hunger-|| The cruelty with
which he may be punished for the slightest offences
against the Brahmans, we have already brought to no-
tice.H His murder by a Brahman is equal only to the
killing of a cat, an ichneumon, the bird cha^ha (the In-
dian Roller), a frog, a dog, a lizard, an owl, or a crow.**
His bliss in a future world, or in a future birth, depends
principally on his service. “ Servile attendance on
Brahmans learned in the Veda, chiefly on such as keep
house and are famed for virtue, is of itself the highest
duty of a Shudra, and leads him to future beatitude.
Pure, humbly serving the higher classes, sweet in speech,
never arrogant, ever seeking refuge in Brahmans, he
may attain the highest class” (in another birth), ft

By some intelligent writers, the position and condition
of the Indian Shudras, as brought to notice in the Hin-

* Manu, V. 104. t Manu, v. 92. J Manu, viii. 337.

§ Manu, xi. 94. || Manu, x. 99. If See above pp. 19-20.

Manu, xi. 131. ff Manu, ix. 334-335.

AVHAT CASTE IS.

du Law Books, and exhibited in ancient (not the most
ancient) India societj^, has been likened to that of the
Helots of Sparta. As far as the deprivation of liberty,
the social degradation, and the actual sufferings of both
these classes of slaves were concerned, there was doubt-
less considerable similarity. It must be kept in mind,
however, that while the Helots were slaves of the soil
and usually employed in agricultural labour, the Shud;’as
were slaves of the household and commonly emplo3'ed
in domestic services. In religious status, the Shudras
were lower than the Helots. When a reference is made
to their obvious usefulness in olden times, it is difficult
to understand the peculiar hate with which, it would
seem, they were regarded, unless on the supposition
that they were prone, — as well they might be, — to dis-
content and rebellion, at any rate till a general agreement
as to their depression was secured among their superiors.

Of the four classes of Hindus now treated of, it is
held by the Brahmans that theKshatri^’-as and Vaish^^as
no longer exist. In exj)lanatioii of their doctrine on this
matter, they refer to the legend of Parashurama, an
alleged incarnation of the god Vishnu, who is said to
have killed all the KshatrAas in twenty- one engage-
ments ;* to the destruction of the Yadavas b}'- Krishna,
considered also an incarnation of the same god ;f and

* For a summary and review of the wild legends connected with
Parashmama, see Muir's Texts, pp. 151-174. The slaughter of the
Kshatrijas is laid in remote ages, beyond those of the Law Books, and
the narrations of it are not available for the purpose _ for which they
are appealed to by the modern Brcihmans.

t The legends of this alleged clestiuclion' are given in the Mah^bh£-
rata and the Vaishnava Pu;anas. Sec Wilson’s Vishnu Purapa, p. 610.

DISAPPEARANCE OF THE KSHATRIYAS AND VAISHYAS. 5 1

especially to certain passages in the Bhagavata and
other Puraiias, in wliich it is prophesied that after king
Nanda, son of Mah’manda, all earthly power is to be
administered by Ir^hudras.* To their allegations on
these matters it will be afterwards necessaiy to refer.
In the meantime, I would simply mention one or tw'o
historical facts which bear more distinctly on the posi-
tion of the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas in India than
do tlie legends adduced by the Brahmans. As the con-*
quests of the Aryas, — from whom, as we shall immedi-
ately see, the first Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas
sprung, — advanced in India, difficulties, arising from
the prejudices of race, were felt in giving the status of
Kshatriyas and Vaishyas to the rulers and cultivators
and merchants of the subjugated tribes; while, com-
pared with the general population of these tribes, the pure
A'lyas must have appeared but few in number. Shakya
Muni, the founder of Buddhism, who flourished in
the first half of the sixth or latter half of the fifth
century before Christ, w^as a Kshatriya ; and he, and his
cause after him, received gTeat patronage and support
from the scions of the princely tribe, who became its
great propagators, while they seceded from the organized
Brahmanical faith and were reckoned apostates by its up-

* Sec Bhagavata, Skanda .vii. 1. In the Vishnu Purana ("Wilson’s,
p. 467) it is said of this Nanda, “Like another Parashuiaina, lie will
be the annihilator of the Kshatriya race; for after him the kings of
the earth will be Shiidras.” Except sometimes in bare lists of kings
(requiring a critical consideration, and adjustment), the Furtnas givg
no history. To preserve the air of antiquity, these writings, which were
evidently manufactui'ed in late centuries, give their chronology in a
prophetical form.

WHAT CASTE IS.

holders. I'he merchants of India, too, clave to Buddhism
in great multitudes, as is evident from the inscriptions
on the Buddhist Excavations, and is still illustrated in
the case of the Jainasof Western India. In the course
of ages, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, mainly of Aiyan
blood, seeing the peculiar honours claimed by and
accorded to Brahmans, not unnaturally aspired, we may
suppose, after promotion ; and in the miscellaneous so-
ciety of India, gave themselves out for Brahmans, though
by the real priestly class they might not be altogether
acknowledged to have this standing. In every pro-
vince of India there are cultivatino^ and labourinsr
Brahmans, so-called, who are not acknowledged by
their brethren in general to be of the real stamp; and
who claim as their privilege only three of the six consti-
tuted works of the Brahmans — those of readings the

Vedas, sacrificing for themselves, and giving alms.
Examples of this class of Brahmans may be found
in the Bhatela Bmlimans of Gujarat ;* in the Shenavl
Brahmans of the Maratha country and Goa tenitories; in
the Ilaiga Brahmans of the Karnatika ; t and in the Ma-
h.istana, or Mastan Brahmans of Odra, or Orissa — who
are as likely to have been originally A ryas of the rul-
ing and cultivating tribes seeking elevation in caste,
as Brahmans deteriorating themselves by their present
employments.; It is notorious that in the Bengal Army,

* See Author’s Journal of a Tour in Gujarat, in Oriental Chris-
tian Spectator 1835, p. 250

f Letter of Huddlestone Stokes Esq. to the aixthor.

J Noticing the Mastan Brahmans, ^Ir. A Stirling (Trans, of As-
Soc. vol. XV., p. 198) says, “ Besides cultivating with their own hands
gardens of the Karbu(.Arum InJicum) cocoanut, and Arec.a,and the pi-

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE MIXED CASTES

many of the parties who had professed to belong to the
Brahmanhood, have been known to declare themselves to
be of a lower g-rade, to get admittance into regiments in
which there was more than the desired supply of Brah-
mans. All this is said with the full admission of the fact
that the Brahmanical tlieoiy of the total extinction of
the Kshatriyas and A'aishyas is altogether inadmissible.
The descent of some of the Rajput princes from the an-
cient Kshatriyas, — with a mixture of foreign and abori-
ginal blood, — seems undeniable, even without the rap-
turous advocacy of the modern Pauranika, the worthy
and genial Colonel James Tod.

IV. — Orthodox View of the Mixed Castes.

According to Mann, the original developenient of
humanity was confined to the Four Castes now noticed.

Three Castes, the Brahman, the Kshatriya, and the Vai-
shya,” he says, “ are twice-born ; the fourth, the Sliudra,
is once-born ; and there is not a fifth.”* These divisions
of human society, however, it must be seen at once, are
quite inadequate to tlie exigencies of its progress and his-
tory. Other classes of men, with other duties, must have
appeared in India, as well as in other countries, soon after
the first settlement in it of any considerable body of the

per beetles, or pan, they very frequently follow the plough, from which
circumstance they are called Halia Brahmans, and they are found
everywhere in great numbers of Mukaddams and Sarbarakars, or
hereditary renters of villages. Those who handle the plough glory in
their occupation, and affect to despise the Bed or Veda Brahmans,
who live upon alms. ... I have not been able to trace satisfactorily
the origin and history of these Mastan Brahmans, who I am informed re-
semble the cultivatins: Brahmans of Tirhut and Behar. ’

* Manu, X. 1.

WHAT CASTE IS.

descendants of onr first progenitor. Such classes Hinduism
recoo’nizes; but it views them, and certain deo’iaded classes
of tlie people, and other bodies of men not yet within the
pale of Hinduism, as the issue of connubial intercourse and
adultery, and of after-propagation by that issue, and
treats them as mules and hybrids.* It calls them the
Mixed Castes (Varna Sankara). The origin thus attri-
buted to them is doubtless entirely of a fictional charac-
ter. The “ Mixed Castes,” must have originated princi-
pally from the increase of occupations in the Hindu com-
munity, brought about by the growing demands and divi-
sion of labour, and by the circumstance of the dominant
people (the A'ryas, to be immediate!}* noticed), coming in
contact wnth aboriginal tribes, which, keeping in the main
beyond the pale of Hinduism, have either Ireen ultimately
degraded, or have maintained for themselves in their own
retreats a precarious independence. I introduce, — rvith
a few explanations, — the information which is given
respecting them by Mann. We are able to identify
several of his designations as those of tribes distinct from
that of the dominant class which established Brahmanism,
and the system of faith with which it is associated.

“ Sons, begotten by the twice-born on the class imme-
diately below them, wise legislators call similar in class
[with their parents, but not the same] because they are
degraded b}'^ the lowness of their mothers. Such is the
primeval rule for the sons of women one degree lower

* Commenting on the passage last quoted from Manu, Kulliika
Bhatpi, as noticed by Mr. Muir (Original Sanskrit Texts, p. 175),
says, “ There is no fifth Caste ; for Caste cannot be predicated of the
mixed tribes, seeing that like mules, they belong to another species
distinct from that of their father and mother.”

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE MIXED CASTES.

[than their husbands] : tor the sons of women two or
three degrees lower, let this rule of law be known: —

“ From a Brdhman, on a Vaishya wife,* is born a
son called Amhas/itha,” who, as Mann in another law
says, “ should live by curing disorders,” and whose class
is recognizable as the A.mbastah a people mentioned
by Ptolemy, ■}■ “ and represented as a “ Vaidija’ or
Physician;”]: on a Shudra wife, [is born] a Nisjidda,
originally viewed as a “ settled” inhabitant, one of
the Aborigines, but afterwards appointed to catch

* The Code, it will be observed, does not toll us what the offspring
of a Brahman and a Kshatriya woman, referred to in the preceding
general law, is. Probably a verse has here disappeared from the
manuscripts. In the Sahyadri Khanda of the Skanda Purdna, we find
it thus written ; — 1
UtTdirrTT : — -The offspring of a Yipra (Brahman on a Kshatriya woman
is a JIurdhdbhishikta (anointed in the head), a liajanya (of princely
descent) reckoned higher in religion than, a Kshatriya. Kulluka BhaUa
supplies Mv.rdhdvxtsiJcta, but adds to it, as apparently designations also
given to this kind of offspring, Muhishya, Karcina, or Kdyastha. Pre-
fixed to these foim designations. Sir TV. Jones (Manu, x. C) supplies
the words, “ They are named in order.” But the names are not in the
order of four ranks, but expressive of four Castes, alleged to be of
one origin and equal status. The Murdhabhishikta, or Murdhdvasikta,
Caste is held by the Brahmans to be no longer in existence.

t AjujBa-ai, Pal. A’ujFmjrai, Ptol. lib. vii, Ed. Bert. p. 204.

J As noticed by Professor Lassen, the appearance of the Yaidya
here is puzzling ; but probably the Code had it in view to give to a
Yaidya more than the rank of a Yaishya, as each of these mixed classes
partakes in the dignity of the father. Onwards the Code gives to the
Ambashtha, the cure of disorders, dropping the Vaidya out of view. It
is probable that the country of the Ambashthas, like the Karnatika of
the present day, furnished remarkable physicians or travelling quacks,

WHAT CASTE IS.

fish,”* named also Pdrashava, in the Juti-Vivcka, aad the
Sahyadri Khanda — a Sonar, or goldsmith, t

“ From a Kshatriya, on a Shadra wife, springs a crea-
ture called U(jra,'' — the patron3'mic of a people in the
time of the Vedas, perhaps the original of the Hungarian
nation, — “ with a nature partly" warlike and partly servile,
ferocious in his manners, cruel in his acts, and command-
ed,— with the Kshattri and Pukkasa to be afterwards
mentioned, — “to live by killing animals that livein holes. ”t
“ The sons of a BiHimanby [women of] three [lower]
classes, of a Kshatriya by [women of) two, and of a
Vaishya, by one [lower] class, are called Ajoasada, or
degraded.

“From a Kshatriya, by' a Brahman woman, is born a

* At the time of the Mahabharata, (Rajadharmmanush£shana
parva, vv. 2209-22 18, Cal. Ed. vol. iii. p. 443) the Nisjiaclas and
Mle'chchas dwelling in the Vindhya mountains, and the reputed
descendants of the Avicked Vena are reckoned at a himdred thousand
(classes ?). The picture of the Ni.shada there given seems to have had
a party lilce the Bhilla for its type, a being spoken of as “ deformed,
dwarfish, of the colour of chared-wood, Avith red [flirious ?] eyes, and
black hair.” To this description of him Ave shall afterwards advert.

The classing of a goldsmith Avith a Nfshdda seems curious ; but the
Nish&da Avas not considered so alien from the ruling race as is commonly
supposed. In the Ramayana i. 33, Ave find Rama spoken of as meeting
' Avith Guha, “ the pious, and beloA-ed prince of the Ni-shadas”
qTllfuTT R^rTlb-TTIT The Bombay goldsmiths, however, don’t like

to ’oe associated with the Nishadas, and plead for being considered a sort
of sub-Brahmans. The Sahyadri Khanda gives to the Sonar, viewed
as a Parashava, more than the religious status of a Shiidra. It denomi-
nates him a Mahashudra, or great Shudra. That AA’ork, hoAvever, is but
a late production.

In the Sahyadri Khanda of the Skanda Purana, the Ugra gets the
rank of a Rajput.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE MIXED CASTES.

Suta” [the '‘sent”], to “live by manag-ing- horses and
drivino" cal’s and who, of old, must have been the
g’reat traditional l>ard, or reciter, of the families in which
he was found.* * * §

“ From a Yaishya, by a military or sacerdotal wife,
springs a Mdghada,” “authorized to travel with merchan-
dise,”— and probably an aboriginal inhabitant of the pro-
vince of Maghada ; “ and a Vaideha’ , of the country of
Videha, — first mentioned in the Sanskrit writings as be-
longing to King .Tanaka, — “ to live by waiting on women.”

“ From a Shudra, on a Vaishya, Kshatriya, or Brahman
woman, are born sons of a mixed breed, called A'yogava
(a monstrous junction); a Kshattri,” “a degraded being,
who must live by killing animals;” “and a Chdnddla, the
lowest of mortals,” — t whose tribe is recognized by
Ptolemy as that of the Kandali, or Goiidali, on the river
Tapti,:[; (perhaps the Gonds, — adjoining the Phyllitoe, of
the same author,' identified as the Bhills, — or the Gondha-
hs, still a wandering tribe of the Maharashtra.)

“From a Brahman, by an Ugra female, is born an
A'vrita ; by one of the Ambashtha. tribe, an A'hhira," —
designated from Ahira, of Ptolemy, on the banks of the
Indus, and represented by A'hir, the name of a class of
shepherds in Sindh, Kachh, and Kathiaw’ad ; “ by one of
the Ayogava tribe, a Dhigvana,”\ “ appointed to sell
leather.”

* The Mahabharata professes to have been recited by Ugrasravas the.

son of the Suta Lomaharshana, who is said, however, to have received
it from Vaishampayana, a disciple of Vyasa, the reputed “ compiler,” as
his name bears, of the Vedas and Shastras.

f Manu, X. 6-12.

§ Ptol. Geo. Ed. Bertii. p. 204.

t Manu, X. 15.

AVHAT CASTE IS.

“ The son of a ^^ is]la(la by a Shudra woman is by tribe
a PuJckam” “ to live by killing' animals that live in
holes “ but the son of a Shudra by a Nishadi woman,
is named Kiihhjtaka.

One born of a Kshattri by an JJgra is called Sva-
2Jdha (dog'-eater) ; and one begotten by a Vaideha on an
Ambashthi -woman is called Vena ” “ who should strike
musical instruments.”*

“ Those whom the. twice-born beget on women of equal
classes, but who perform not the proper ceremonies,
people denominate Vrdtya, or excluded from the Gayatri.

“From such an outcast Brahman springs a son, of a
sinful nature, named a Blu'a^jakantaka , an A'vanfya, a
Vdtadhdna, a Piiskpadha, and a ShaiJcha,” — ^^who seem to
have been inhabitants of the countries near the western
part of the Yindhya range.

“ From such an outcast Kshatriya comes a son called
Jhalla (Rajguru), a Malla (wrestler), a Nichhavi,^
Kata (a dancer), a Karana, a Khasa” (of the Khasya
tribe), and a Dravida,” — of the eastern coast of the
peninsula.

“ From such an outcast V aishya is born a son called
Sudha/ivd, Uidryya, Kdrusha, Vijanma, Maitra, and
Sdtvata” — the last mentioned being near the Vindhya.l

“ ADasyu,’' — originally a non- Aryan, — “ or outcast of
any pure class, begets, on an Ayogavi woman, a Sairin-
dhra, who should know how to attend and dress his
master.

* Yaia comes from Yi'na, a lyre.

+ This is supposed by Professor Lassen to be for LJchavi, a class of
people, noted as -warriors, in the East of India.

Mann x. 17-23.

OHTIIODOX VIEW OF THE MIXED CASTES.

A Vaidelia begets on her a sweet-voiced Maitreyaka,
who ringing’ a bell (or g'ong) at the appearance of dawn,
continualh’ praises great men.

“ A XisJuida begets on her n Maryam, or Dasha, w’ho
subsists by his labour in boats, and is named Kaivarta,
by tliose who dwell in Aryavarta.*^

“From a Nishada, by a Yaideha woman, springs a
Kardmra, who cuts leather, and from a Yaideha by
women of the Kara, vara and Nishada castes an Andhra
(of tlie eastern part of tlie peninsula), and a Mkla,‘\ wdio
must live without the tCAvn,” — perhaps of the degraded
Meda (“ Mail’”) tribe in Rajputana.

“From a Chandala, by a Yaideha Avoman, comes n.Fan-
du'opaka, avIio Avorks Avith cane and reeds; and from a
Xishdda, an Ahwlika,” said to be a “jailor.”

“ From a Chandala, by a Pukassl Avoman, is Ijorn a
Sopdka, Avho lives by punishing’ criminals, a sinfiil AA retch
ever despised by the virtuous.

“ A Xisliadi woman, by a Chandala, produces a son
called Antyavasayi (performer of tlie loAvest actions) em-
ployed in places for burning tlie dead, contemned eA^enby
the contemptible.” 1

“The following races of Kshatriyas, by theif omission
of holy rites and by seeing no Brahmans, have gradually
sunk ainono; men to the loAAest of the four classes [ the
Shadras\ ; — Paundrakas, [ of the east of India ], Odras
[ of Orisa ], and Dravidas [ of the south east of India ] ;
Kamhojas, Yamiias [Greeks], and Shakas [Sacae]; Pdra-

* 3Ianu, X. 32-31. The region of the A'ryas.

j The Maratha BrMiniaiis consider the MMa the cfinivalent ol Gonda.

J Mann, x. 3G-33.

WHAT CASTE IS.

(las, Pahlavas [ Persians], CMnas [Chinese],* Kirdtas,
Daradas, and KhasJias [all identified as names of peoples
and tribes]. All those tribes of men which are sprung
from the classes produced from the mouth, the arm, the
thigh, and the foot of Brahma, became outcasts and are
called Dasyus, whether they speak the language of the
Mlechchhas, or that of the AryasPi

The Mixed Classes of the Hindus, even in their generic
designations, are now far more numerous tlian those
which are here indicated, though doubtless there has been
a great indisposition on the part of the Brahmans to ex-
tend them nominally beyond those found mentioned in
the more ancient Law Books. This fact may be illustrat-
ed by any of the Tabular views of the Castes constructed
by the natives in any of the provinces of India, — as in that
of the Maharashtra, or Maratlia countr}^ a transliteration
and translation of which, in an abridged form, may, with
its introductory matter, be here introduced, as the most
distinct and prtcise document of the kind procurable.:}:

1. ‘'The Brahmans have proceeded from the mouth
of the god Brahma. They have a right to the perfor-
mance and use of the Sixteen Sacraments and the Six
religious ^yorks.” The Sixteen Sacraments ( sansharas),
here alluded to, are the following : — garhhadhana,s>acv\^c(i
to promote conception, or acknowledge it when it occurs ;

* 'file occurence of tlie Chinas and Yavanas in this veree indicates
this portion of Manu to be later than tlie time of the Greeks in India.

t Manu X. 4.3-45. See, on some of the tribes here mentioned,
Wilson’s Vishnu Purina, p. 177.

t This character I give it on comparing the ilarathi Tables -with the
similar documents of Bengal, the Gwaler State, Orisa, the Canarcse
country, the Tamil countty, Malayalim, etc.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE MIXED CASTES.

punsavana, sacrifice on in tlie foetus; anavalo-

bhana, sacrifice in the third month of pregnancy ; Vuhnu-
bali, sacrifice to Vishnu in the seventh month of preg-
nancy ; simantonjiayana, sacrifice in the lourth, sixth, or
eighth month ; jdtakarmma, the birth ceremony, giving
the infant clarified butter from a golden spoon before
dividing the navel string; ndmakarana, naming the child
on the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, or hundred-and-first
day; nuhkramana, carrying him out to be presented to
the moon on the third lunar day of the third light fort-
night ; surydvaloJtana, carrying him out to be presented
to the sun in the third or fourth month ; annaprdshana^
feeding him with rice in the sixth or eighth month, or
when he has cut his teeth; chuddkdryya, tonsure, in the
second or third year ; tipanayana, investiture with the
string in the fifth, eighth, or sixteenth year ; mahandmya
instruction in the gayatri-mantra, after the Munja, the
ceremony of investment with the sacrificial cord ; sama-
varttana, loosing the Munja from the loins ; vivdha, mar-
riage, with its immediate antecedents and concomitants ;
svargarohana, funeral ceremonies and obsequies, to forward
the entrance of the spirit into Svarga, or heaven.* The
dispensation of such of the Sacraments here mentioned as
j)recede birth, is attended with the injury of all delicate
feeling in families. There is much ceremony, without
any really moral import, in all the Hindu Sacraments.
The Six Constituted works of the Brahmans have been
already mentioned. t

2. “ The Kshab’iyas have proceeded from the arm

* In this mention of the Sacraments, I have principally followed
IMolesuorth (Dictionar}", p. 836). But compare Steele's Summary of
the Law and Customs of Hindu Caste, p. 30.

f See alwe, p. 17.

WHAT CASTE IS.

of the god. They have a right to the use of the Sixteen
Sacraments and Three religious Works.

3, “ The Vaishijas have proceeded from the foot of
the god. They have a right to the use of the Sixteen
Sacraments and Three religious Works.

4. “ The Shudras have proceeded from the foot of the
god. They have a right to the use of Twelve Sacra-
ments through the Nama-Mantras.* Their duty is to
serve the other three Castes.

Thus were created the Four Castes {varnas) . The
god Brahma also produced some Mind-born Sons. One
of these was Kashyapa Rishi [the son of Marichi one of
the Mind-born Sons], who gave birth to the gods
{Deoas) and Titans {Daityas), and so continued the
progression of the world. '[ The Brahmans had the

* The prmcipal Sacraments not alloAvcd to Shudras are Upanayana,
Maluinamya, and Sainavarttana. The Nama-Jiahtras are the simple
invocations of tlie names of the gods, as distinguished ii-om Yedic texts.

t Li the doctrine of the i\Iind-born sons of Brahma, here alluded to
(designedly in an obscure form, for preventing the charge of inconsist-
ency), there is, even in iManu (i. 32-et seq.), a theory of the origin of the
human race quite inconsistent Avith the orthodox A'ic'w of the origin of
Caste. “ Having divided his ovrn body into tmo parts, the lord [Brahma,
the creator] became, Avith the half, a male, and Avith the half, a female ; and
in that female he created Vireij. KnoAv, O most excellent of Brahmans,
[IManii is here represented as speaking to Bhrigu, one of the Mind-born
Sons, or Sons formed by Manu] that I am the person Avhom that male Vinij
alter performing dcA'otion, created : I aa'Iio am the ' creator of all this
[Avorld]. Being desirous to form creatirres, I performed A'ery arduous
deA'otion, and first created ten IMaharshis, (great Kishis) the lords of
creatures : Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Prache-
tas, Yashishtha, Bhrigu, and Narada. They, endued Avith great energy,
created seven other IManus and Devas, and the abodes of Devas, and
^laharshis of boundless po'.ver. Yakshas, IMkhasas, Pishachas, Gan-

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE MIXED CASTES.

custom of receiving in marriage females of all the
four Castes (the wife of his own Caste being the first.)
The Kshatiiyas married the females of three Castes,
including their own. The Vaishyas were to exclude the
females of the Brahman and Kshatriya Castes, and
to many those of their own and the Shildra Caste. The
Shudras were permitted to contract marriages only in
their own Caste. Such was the custom of the former
ages. The offspring of such marriages is called the
Ajiuloma.^ The offspring of unlawful connexions between
the higher Caste men and lower caste women is called
the PralilomaA The period for the investiture with
the sacred thread of the male issues of the Brahman,
Kshatriya, and Yaishya Castes is [properly] restricted
to the age of nine years (to the commencement of the

clhai-^-as, Apsarasas, Asuras, Xaga.<5, Sei-peuts, Siiparnas, and the dif-
ferent cla.'«?es of Pitris, Kinnara.s, apes, fi.shes, varioiis birds,

beasts, deer. Men, and wild animals Avitli two rows of teeth Thus

by iny appointment [that of IMann, the son of the self-existent]
and by the force of devotion, these gi'eat ones created all this mova-
ble and immovable world with separate actions allotted to each creature.”
To this pas&ige, as opposed to the orthodo.x theory of Caste, I directed
attention in my lectiu'es to the youth of Bombay many years ago. Mr.
iMiiir (whose translation I have adopted in giving it, O. S. T. p. 16),
I am glad to notice, thus refers to it : — “ It Avill be obseiwed that
among the crcatm'es formed by the ten Maharshis are hlen, who are not
.specified as being of any particular caste. How does this creation by the
IMaharshis consist with the four being created separately, and by the
immediate act of Brahrini, as de.scribed inverse 31,” [in which they are
.spoken of as brought from his head, hands, etc] ?

* From Anu, with, and loma, hair, gi'ain, or line, meaning in the
direct line of nature.

■I" The reverse of the precedijig.

WHAT CASTE IS.

ninth year)* Those whose thread ceremony has not been
solemnized within that period are called Vratya. The
children born to the Vratyas by adultery with the
women of their own caste are called the Vrdtya-Santati
(Yratya-progeny). Again, those bom of illegal con-
nexion of the men of any one of the above-mentioned
castes with the w'omen of any other caste are called the
Mixed Castes {Sankara- Jciti ). The authors of the Jati-
Viveka, the Brahajjati-Viveka, the Madhava Kalpalita,
and the Parashurama Pratapa [works of authority
among the Maratha Brahmans], say there are many
Mixed- Castes in this last age (Kali-Yuga) which cannot
be determined and described. Yet, wdth the help of
Manu and the other Rishis, they enumerate 134 produced
from the Anulomas and Pratilomas, and the mixture (by
the Sankara-Juti) of the four original Castes. They
describe their modes of subsistence, and notice the Castes
which are referable to the Sankara-J ati and those which
are not. The following is the snm of them : —

Directly from god — the Brahman, Kshatriya, Yaishya, and Shudra 4
From the Anuloma — the IMm-dlia-Vasikta, the Amba.shtha, the Pa-
rashava, the Mahishya, the Ugra, and the Yaitalika-Karana

Charana 6

From the Pratiloma — the Siita, the Yaidehika, the Chandiila,

the Magadha, the Kshata-Xishada, the Ayogava 6

From the Vratyas and the Sankaras together, according to

the preceding books 36

To which are to be added, fi'om the Parashurama Pratapa, 22

Total of Castes enumerated 134.”

* See the injunction of Manu on this matter, above, pp. 15-16. But
compare with it, for the apphcation of the term Vratya, the Mahabharata,
Anushashana Parva, 6. 2621 : — The three outcaste classes are the
Chandala, the Yratya, and the Yaidya, begotten by a Shudra on females
of the Brahman, Kshatriya, and Yaishya classes respectively.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE MIXED CASTES.

TABULAR VIEW OF THE CASTES ABOVE REFERRED TO.

From the Brahman to the Shudra, here the Kxinhi or Cultivator.

Caste* Sanskrit deno^ Marathi denomi-
mination* nation*

English deno^ .
mination.

Male Parent.

Female Parent.

Procession.

1 Brahaniai.ia .... Brahman

Brahman

. Brahman . .

. Brahman . ,

, Regular.

2 Murddhabhishik

ta*

Anointed in
the head

Brahman . .

Kshatriya . ,

. Anuloma_

3 Kshatriya Kshatriya

, Kshatriya ....

, Kshatriya . ,

, Kshatriya . .

Regular.

4 Ambashtha .... V aidya

Ambashtha . ,

Brahman . .

Vaishya...

. Anuloma,

5 Vaishya Vaishya

Vaishya ,

Vaishya....

V aishya . . . .

, Regular.

6 Mahishya Joshi

Mahishya or
Joshi

Kshatriya ..

Vaishya .. . .

, Anuloma.

7 Kunda-Golaka . . Kunda-Golaka . ,

, Kunda-Golaka Brahman. .,

, Brahman
wife of
another

Adultery.

8 Rauda-Golaka ... Randa-Golaka . .

Randa-Golaka

Brahman . .

Brahman-

widow

Adultery.

9 Bhishaka, or Am- Ap^|p- Ambashtha BhishaJca,or
bakat Ambaka

Brahman. . .

Kshatriya . .

Adultery,

10 Sdta Sarathi

Charioteer, or
Bard

Kshatriya ..

Brahman . . ,

. Pratilo*
ma.

1 1 ParashavaJ .... Sonar

Goldsmith ....

Brahman . ,

Shiidra . . • •

Anuloma.

12 Ugra Rajput

Itgra

Kshatriya . .

Shiidra . . . .

Anuloma.

13 Eansyakara .... Kansar

Bell-metal-

Shuiasena,

Shurasena,

Degene-

worker

Adhika-

Kshatriya

Adhika-

Kshalriya

ration.^

14 Brijjakantha. . . . Prathama-Bai-
ragi

1. Bairugi ....

Brahman

Vratya,

Anupam'ta

Brahman . .

Vratya-

Santati.

15 A'vartaka DwitiyaBairagi. ,

2. Do

Bi'ijjakantha
or Pratham
Bairagi

Brahman , .

Do.

16 Katadhana .... Tritiya-Bairagf. .

3. Do

A’vartaka, or
Dwitiya
Bairagi

Braliman. . ,

Do.

17 Puslipasliekhara. Chaturtha-Bai-
ragt

4. Do

Katadhana,
or Tritiya
Bairagi 1|

Brahman. , .

Do.

* Or Jturclhdvisiklita. Xow altogether extinct. t Ifow altogether extinct,

t Goldsmitlis are important^ personages in the coramimity. Stany say they are here inserted by favour,
as all the handicrafts, according to the Caste theory, should rank lower than Shddras. They have, however, a
Brdlimaii progenitor ascribed to them.

5 By a Ksliatriya adopting a trade, as is said.

II Tlie Bairagfs,— or Vairdgis—an devotees of Vijhnu, and properly a sect, not a caste. The numeric dis-
' tinctions in Mardthi ( 1, 2, .1, 4 ) are purely arbitrary.

1 9

WHAT CASTE IS.

treya, Savrlta,

22 AbHr

23 Magadha-Bandi -

jana

24 Napita

25 Apara-Napitaf . ,

26 Jhalla

27 Malla ...
23 Vichuka ,

29 Suda

SO Kansyakara

SI Kinasava .
32 Bathakara ■

na, or Charana
S4 Kayastha

36 Parabha

38 Manikara

Mardthi denomi-

Englith deno-

Male Parent.

Female'Pareni.

nation.

mincUion.

. Surya-Upasaka. .

Mdghacla . . . ,

, Brahman .

. Pushpashe-

Devapuja-Ka-

Idol-dresser .

. Brahman . ,

khara . . .
, Magadha . .

ranar

, Jangam, etc., of .

. Yratya-van

- Yaishya...

five kinds of

sha Anu-

Yanis*

Kunbf.

Cultivator . ,

panita

, Shiidra . . .

. Shudra ...

Of the Status of the Cultivators.

Gawaji

Herdsman\ .

. Brahman .

, . Mahishya .

Bhatava Kavi . .

Minstrel of the

Yaishya . . .

. . Kshatriya .

Nbavi

Mdgadhas
Barber

Brahman .

. Shudra . . . .

Nhavi

Barber

Magadha .

. Ugra

Rajguru

Jhalla ......

Rshatriya-

Shudra or

JethiJ;

irrestler . . . .

Yratiya
, Jhalla

Kshatriya
. Kshatriya . ,

Chatradhar, or

Umbrella-

Brahman .

. Yaidehika . ,

Wari

Svayampaki ....

holder

Cook

Suta

1 Yaidehika . ,

Bogar-Kausar . .

Clumsy-Bra-

Brahman .

. Ambashtha .

T ambat

zier

Coppersmith , ,

Kshatriya .

. Parashava . ,

Sutar §

Carpenter . . . .

Mahishya .

. Charani-

Lowe)

’ than Slaidras.

Yaitklaka

Dhadi(?)

Yaishya . . .

. Shudra . . . .

Prabhu or Par-

K. Parbhu ..

Yaidehika .

. Mahishya . .

bhu

Prabhu or Par-

Barbltu

Kayastha .

. Kayastha-

bhu

Parabha

Yratya Pra-

tvidow

Prabhu-sist-

Bhadabhunjya . .

bhu-bro-

ther

Grain-pareher Yaidehika .

, Shddra ••

Yidhari

Jeweller

Kshatriya .

. Yaishya . . . .

K atari

Turner

MaUikara

. Kayastha . ,

Pratilo-

ma.

Vratya S.

Adultery.

* This is a late interpolation, the Jausams being the priests of the Liugtiyits, a modern sect,
t From the Sanskrit Jyeshtha, chief. t Variety of the preceding. § Or Karana.

II Insinuation from brtihmanical Iwtrcd, the Kayasthas, or Parbhus, being great rivals of the Brdliman
in the matter of office-employment.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE MIXED CASTES.

Caste, /ianstrit deno-

Mardthi denomi-

English deno-

Mate Parent.

Female Parent. Procession

minatioHi

40 A’yogava ......

nation.

» Pillharavat • . . .

mination.

. Stone-di'esser,

. Shudra . , . ,

Yaishya .... Pratilo-

41 Kumbhakiira , ,

, Kumbhnr

. Potter

Brahman . .

, Ugra ma.

42 Gandhaka

, Gandhi

. Perfumer . . . .

. Ugra ....

. Ambashtha. .

43 Yatsala ........

, Gor4khi

. Coicherd ....

. Shiidra . . .

. Kiinsyakdra .

44 Silindhra Mar

- Ang-Mardani ..

. AppUers of un

- Malla

. Kshatriya ..

danf ( ?)

4o Chhagalika ....

, Shejaka. .....

guents

. Goatherd ....

, Katadhdna.

. Bandijana or

46 Sindolaka

Shimpi

1 Tailor ......

. Shudra ...

Magadhi
, Bhanda ....

47 Vastra-Vikraji. ,

, Kapada-Yika-

Clothier-

Shiidra ....

. Ayogava or

48 Shdbala

nar-Shimpi
. Unknown*

Tailor

Br.4hman .

Pdthara-

va^

. Bandijana . .

49 Shankarghua . .

Shank arghna . .

Kiiyastha

A'yogava. . . .

60 Malakara

Mali

, Gardener ....

Prabhu
Mahishya . .

, Nishada ....

51 Phala-Vikra) 1 . .

Phal-Yikanar ...

. Flower-seller

Brahman .

. Kalavanta . .

52 Kagalika

Kavadi Kashi . .

Fruit-seller , .

Shiidra . . . .

■ Ugra

. Messenger . ,
Bed-tnalcer . .

54 Shayapala

Phriis

Sairandhra. .

, Dwara-rak-

55 Ni.shada-PiLra-

Nicha-Sonar ....

Low-Sondr ..

Brahman . .

shaka

, Shudra ....

shava

56 Mahaguru, Ush-

Karhekar

Camel-man . .

Kshata-Ni-

Avartaka . .

trapala

57 Magutavalli (?) . .

Chora-Rakshak

Watchman , .

shdda
Kshemak
Brahman . .

Bandijana . .

58 Bhasma- Sankara Gurava

Dresser of

Maha-Tap-

Married-

59 Suchala and Ku-

Gondhali

Idols

Musician ....

asvi Brah-
man

A'ndh) a . . . .

Shudra
Yaidehika ..

cbala

60 Maitn'ya.

Gondhali

Rude-Musi-

A'aidehika . .

A'yogava . .

61 Chitrakara

Shankavati and

dan

A’vartaka-

Uhigvana . .

62 Prasadika ......

Rajavali
Gaundi

Mason

Kumbhar
A'yogava ..

Kaivartaka

63 Aurabhra

Dhangar

Shepherd ....

Brijjakanta. .

Chhagali.. ..

64 Sangara (?) ....

Sangar

Shepherd ....

Shudra ....

A’bhir

65 Yaidehika

Kuntan

Pimp

Yaishya ....

Brahman. . . . Pratilo-

66 Kshemaka

Dwara-rakshalc ,

Doorkeeper

Kshata-Ni-

Ugra ma.

67 Ulmuka

Chobdar

Lohar

Blacksmith . .

shada

Kshatriya . .

Magadha

68 Ishukara Man-

Tirgar and Ka-

Archer

A'bhir

Brikunsha . ,

didik.

mangar

* The name, said to be Sanskrit, does not seem genniiie.

WHAT CASTE IS.

Caste. Sanskrit deno-
mination.

Mar&thi d^nomi^
nation.

English deno^
mination.

Male Parent.

Female Parent . Procession.

69 Ishukara

Tirgar

Archer

Abb.fr

Kairartaka. ,

70 Mausalika (?) . .

Tell

Oilman ... . .

Parashava . .

■Pgra

71 N%avalli Vik-
rayi.

Tambolf

Betel-leaf

seller

Kancbarf . ,

Kumbhakara

72 Kanchakara. . . . .

KanchKaranar

Glassmaker

Shalmalf.. . .

. A’vartaka . .

73 Shakilja

Nicha-Xhavf . . . .

Low-Barber

Rdpita

Mdrga

A'vartaka . .
A'vartaka , .

V^rn

75 Kuravinda

Koshtf

Weaver and
Spinner

Kukkuta. . .

76 Shaushira (?) . .. .

Tasardvakar-

Koshtf

yiaker of
coarse silk
cloth. Low
Weaver

Kukkufa . .

A'bhfr

77 Nilikdra

Nirdli

Indigodyer . .

A'bbfra ....

Kukkufa. . . .

78 Raukika

Kit-Londri

Charcoal-

maker

Malla

A'vartaka . .

79 Yavasika and

Kirdd and Chd-

■ Grass-cutter

Fdsulaka . ,

Pulkasa ....

Shdkilya

bukswdr

Horse-

Trainer

80 Patula

Fdngul

Pdngul-

beggars

Pasulaka . .

, Shddra ....

81 Dasyu

Bhamatya

Thieves

Kuravinda . ,

, Kairartaka..

82 Vena

Bahurupi

Maslc-tcearers

Playmen

Ambashtha

V aiddhika . .

83 Brikunslia

Jambhaka and
A'kat

Fortune-tell-
ers, etc.

A'yogava . .

Mdgadha-

Bandijana

84 KaHvanta

Kaldvanta and
Kaval

Dancers

, Kata

. W ahishya . .

85 Paushtika

Bhm

Bearers ....

Brahman . .

Ni'shada ....

86 Pdshulpalya or
Pashu-Vikarayi

Wanjdra

Wanjdrd or
Banfdra ,

Paushsika . .

Nishdda ....

87 Kairartaka

Dbivar KuH. . . .

Fisherman . .

Pdrashava . .

A’yogava . .

88 Dhi'gvan

Jin gar

Saddler

Brdhman . .

A'yogava. . .

89 Kdramdri

Shikalgar

Furbisher . .

Descent not recorded. . . .

90 C tdraka

Otdri

Caster and
Founder

Kdramdra ..

Chitrakdra . .

91 Shuddha-ftldr-
gaka

Ghadashi or
Wasantri

( Loxc ) Mmi-
cimi

Mdgadha . .

Mahishya . .

92 Krodhakukkuta

Taksaji

Mint man ....

Shudra ....

Kshata-

Kishdda

Lower than the preceding hut higher than Chanddlas.

They dont reside in villages.

93 Bandhulaka . .

... Jhdrekai'f ...

metallic dross

Jddhika . .

94 Kdshtapdtrf . .

. . Badhdf

... Box-maker .. Kairartaka..

Ahf-tundika

95 Dhusakdra . . . .

. . . Coarse- Kdramdra . ,

Blacksmith

Sutdr ......

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE MIXED CASTES.

Caste. Saiislrit item-

ilarathi denomi-

English deno-

Male Parent. Female Parent. Procession.

mination.

nation.

mination.

96 Shailika

Ndlband

Sheer of
animals

Kashtapdtra- Brahman . ,
ku ra

97 Karma-Chdnd-
dla.

Belddr

Sione-cligger

Brahman- Brdhman-\vi-

Sannydsi dow

98 Mangushtha ....

Chuni-Londri . .

Lime-burner

Kairartaka., Jddhika..,.

99 Manjusha

Farit

If'asherman

Yaidehika Ugra

100 Nata

Kolhdntf or

Tumbler or

Shilmdhra Khatriya . .

Bobdri

Dancer

Mardanf

101 Sutradhara

Chitra-kathf or
Kald-Sutri

Doll-Dancer

A’yogava . . Rathakdra.

102 Rajukdra

Kdujdri

Rope-twister

Brijakantha Avartaka , .

103 Kshata-Nishdda

Phanse-Pdradhi

Snarer

Shildra .... Kshatriya . . Pratiloma.

104 Kinshuka

Burud

Basketmaker

Kaivartaka.. Kuravinda.,

105 Apara-Kinshuka

Kaikddf

Basketmaker

Kishdda.... DhigTana ..

106 Khadirotpddaka

Katkarf

K(itkari-\ ....

Ushtrapdla. . Brahman

107 Angshuka Man-
dalika.

Kutewan

Dogman ....

Pushpashe- KarmaChdn-
khar dala

lOS Ahi-tundaka. . . .

Gdrudi

Player with
serpents

Vaidehika ,. Nishada ....

103 Gholika

Yaddri

Vaddrf

Nishdda.... J'hi-tundal<a

110 Charmaka or
Kdravdra

Chdmblidr

, Shoemaker. . .

Dhigvana .. Nishdda....

111 Vaishya-Gdyaka

Bdsphod

Bambu-

Splitter

Avartaka . . Kdravdra , ,

112 Chuladhya

Ni'cha-Parit ....

Lolo IVasher-
man

Kaivavtalia. . Karana ....

113 Saunika

Kbdtik

Butcher, k., . .

Karma-chdn- Kaivartaka. .
dala

Kaldl

The touch of the folloiuing requires ablution of dress. J

115 Durbhara

l>hor

. Currier

A'yogava . . Dhigvana . .

116 Me da

Gonda and
Tlidkur

Gonda, and
Thukur

Vaidehika.. Kdravdra ..

117 Bhilla

Bhilla

Kaivartaka. . Kdravari . .

118 Bhdruda

Ramushi and
Berad

Berad, Rdmu-
shi

Antevasdyl. Pulkasa....

1 19 Tavdra

Lakhdrf or Ni-
cha Otari

Vamishers,
Dealer s-in lac

Hastaka .... Meda

From the Chdndala to the Cannibal.

120 Chdndala

Hindu Halal-
khor

Scavengers . .

Shudra .... Brahman • , Pratiloma.

12l Pulkasa

Dongan'-KuH ...

, Hill-Kuli

Nishada .... Shddra ....

* Jungle tribe, makers of cateclui. 'Wandering tril)C : rat-catchers, stone-dressers, Sc.

Sachailastidiia.

AVHAT CASTE IS.

Caste. Sanslril deno- j,' Mardthi denomi- English deno- Male Parent. Female Parent. Procession,
viination. nation. mination.

122 Turushka .... Gonda, Turka- Nishada..-. Medada ....

man, MlecL-
cha, etc.*

123 Shvapdkat PrathamMahar 1 Mahdr .... Chandala .. Pulkasa ....

124 Antevasayi .... Uwitfya MaMr, 2 Mahdr .... Chanddla .. Nishdda....

Dom

125 Plava, Tritfya Makar 3 Mahdr .... Chandala .. A'ndhra....

126 Kravjadhi Chaturtha Ma- 4 Mahdr .... Shvapaka .. Plava

har

127Hastaka.. Pancham Mahdr 5 Mahdr .... Chanddla .. Kraviadhi..

128 Ka taka Sahara Mahdr 6 Mahdr .... Shvapaka .. Hastaka....

129 Heshaka Ni'cha-Mahdr ., Low Mahdr.. Doma, Ante- Matangf . . . .

vasdyf

130 Chesha Ati-mchaMahar 3/a/idr Turushka .. Chdnddla ..

131 Shvapacha Mang Mdng Chanddla ., Meda

132 Matanga Mang Loto Mdng .. Plava Antevasayi.

133 Malyahdri, Yava- Musalman-Halal- “ SoWier”. . . . Turushka ., Suda

na khor, SojarJ

134 Manushya- Adam-l?hor .... Cannibal .... Chdnddla .. Meda

Bhakshaka

Besides the Castes above enumerated,” it is added to the
Tables, “ there are other Castes, — in the city of Puna eleven, —
the origin of which caimot be explained according to theShastras.
Altogether, the Recognized Castes in the Maratha Country
amount to 145. The rank popularly assigned to these Castes does
not ill each instance accord with that established by the Shastras.”
The list, though comjirehending but the famihes and genera
of the local Castes, is indeed, far from being complete. But to
this subject we must afterwards return in another connexion.
Our object at present has been merely to illustrate the principle
according to which, in the orthodox view, varieties in Caste have
originated. The mode of their actual development will require
special and distinct notice.

* This shows that the Br^ihmans are but poor ethnographers,
t Dog-eaters: the Sanskrit denominations, it •will [be observed, are all attributed to the Mahdrs, a degraded
Aboriginal tribe, here arbitrarily set forth as of six degrees.

X Let the British warrior mark the place here assigned to him. The Brdlimans are afraid to put the *‘Sahebs*’
here: and they excuse themselves by saying that they have got a share of the Rdjddhikir6, (authority of
governraent) claimed by the ancient Kshatriyas. Some of the Brahmans bold that the Yavanas and Europeans
should take rank after the Turushkas : but this is of little consequence, as they are still left between the Chiin-
dilaand Cannibal.

ORTHODOX VIEW OF THE MIXED CASTES.

To this it has to be added, that the view of the origin and po-
sition of the castes here given is that to which orthodox Hinduism
adheres to the present day. Tliis is obvious, not only from some
of the authorities from which the preceding matter has been
dra\ni, but from the representations constantly made by the Brah-
mans in their intercourse with their pupils, and in then' popular
expositions of Hinduism, such as the Hindu Dharma Tatva of
Gangadhar Shastri Phadake, long the Pandit of the Bombay
Education Society and Elphinstone College in Bombay, pub-
lished only in a few years ago.* This author tells us, for example,
that the Brahman has got intelligence (huddhi), disposing him
to his own six peculiar works; that the Kshatriya is directed
by his nature to his appointed employments ; that the Yaishya
is urged by innate inclination to his prescribed work ; and that
the Shudra is destined hy his “ coarse intellect” to his mean
engagements The four first castes, he says, have existed from
the creation, and those of the Sankar (through the Anxdoma and
the Pratiloma) from early times. The number of castes, he holds,
is on the increase to the present day, bringing them, — by differ-
ences and distinctions of country, of custom, of conduct, of food
and livelihood, of works (good, indifferent, and low), of attach-
ment to particular gods, and of sectarial opinion, — up to ‘thou-
sands upon thousands.” This increase, he adds, is doubtless
“according to the will of God,” and not without its advantages,
which should be acknowledged by the powerful Government
of this country, which would find it difficult to overthrow even
the most modern of them. The advantages of caste, he begs the
natives to observe, are undeniable, though he does not specify
them ; while there is nothing disgraceful in the meanest services
prescribed by the caste system, the very Shudras having Mahars,
and Mangs, and others, as much subordinated to them as they
* See Hindu Dharrua Tatva, pp. 60-77.

WHAT CASTE IS,

themselves are subordinated to the Brahmans. To persons of
low-caste seeking learning, not called for by their original posi-
tion, he expresses no good will, as he teaches that they will
upset the order of things, to the production of general inconve-
niences and difficulties. In all this he is but a representative
man of the orthodox, and still prevailing, school. Old India
directs its uniform effort to the conservation of caste with all its
peculiarities and pretensions. Everything adverse to caste it
interprets as a sure sign or omen of the advance of the Kali
Yuga, or iron age, preparatory to the destruction of the universe,
as guessed at in the curious attempts at prophecy made in the
Puranas, on the first threatenings or realization of Muhammadan
conquest in the North of India.*

* The following very curious specimen of these prophecies is here worthy
of attention : —

“ Men of three tribes, but degraded, and A'bhiras ."ind Sbiidras, will occupy Shauritsbtra, Avantf, Sliiira,
Arbuda, and Marubhumi : and Sbiidras out-castes, and Barbarians will be masters of the banks of the Indus,
Ddrrika, the Chandrabhdga and Kashirir. These will be contemporary monarchs, reigning over the earth ;
kings of churlish spirit, riolent temper, and ever addicted to falsehood and wickedness. They win inflict
death t n women, cliildren, and cows ; they will seize upon the property of their subjects, they will be of
limited power, and will for the most part rapidly rise and fall ; their lives will be short, their desires insati-
able, and they will display but little piety. The people of the various countries intermingling with them will
follow their example, and the barbarians being powerful in the patronage of the princes, whilst purer tribes
are negiectcd, the people will perish. Wealth and piety will decrease daybydiy, until the world will be
wholly depraved. Then property alone will confer rank ; wealth will be the only source of devotion ; passion
w ill be the sole bond of union between the sexes ; falsehood will be the only means of success in litigation ;
and women will be objects merely of sensual gratification. Earth will be venerated hut for its mineral
treasures ; the Brahmanical thread will constitute a Brahman ; external types (as the staff and red garb)
will be the only distinctions of the several orders of life ; dishonesty will be the universal means of sub-
sistence ; weakness will be the cause of dependence ; menace and presumption will be substituted for learning,
liberality will be devotion ; simple ablution will be purification ; mutual assent win be marriage ; fine cicthes
will be dignity ; and water afar off will be esteemed a holy spring . Amidst all castes he who is the strongest
will reign over a principality thus vitiated by many faults. The people unable to bear the heavy burdens
imposed upon them by their avaricious sovereigns, will take refuge among the valleys of the mountains, and
will be glad to feed upon wild honey, herbs, roots, fiowers, and leaves ; their only covering will be the
bark of trees, and they will be exposed to the cold, and wiud, and sun, and rain. Ko man’s life will exceed
three and twenty years. Thus in the Kali age shall decay constantly proceed, until the human race
approches its annihilation.” Wilson’s Vishnu Purdna,pp. 481-482. For more matter of the same kind, with
curious variations and discrepancies see pp. 622-626 of the same work, the I2th Skanda of the Bhdgava a,
and the conclusion of most of the other ruranas.

ORIGIN OF CASTE- THE A'RYAS.

V. — Origin and Development of Indian Caste.

The artificial system of Caste, to which the two preced-
ing sections have ’been devoted, was not the growtli of a
siimle as:e, or even of a few centuries. The exhibition of
its origin and development is the great d&sideratum in all
researches into the history of the social life of India.
It is to be regretted that the materials for such an ex-
hibition are but of limited extent and of difficult interpre-
• tation. AVe arrange our notices of them, as far as pi*ac-
ticable, in chronological order.

1. AVe begin with gleanings from the Vedas.

The earliest sources of information on Indian society
are, of course, the oldest portions of the vast and vari-
ed body of Indian literature, denominated the Vedas.
In referring to them for this information, which can be
collected only with much labour, we must distinctly
recognise their peculiar character as literary and religious
works.

The word VMa, as we have elsewhere said, may be
rendered Fount-of- Knowledge or of Ausion, its root ap-
pearing in the Greek and t’tSw, Latin vido

and video, and Englisli The works to which

this name is applied, however, have no comprehensive
contents suitable to their designation, — which appears to
have been given them merely because of their great
age and estimated venerable character, as embodying
the religious songs and hymns of the ancient Indians.

* India Three Thousand Years Ago, p. 15.
10

WHAT CASTE IS.

They are four iu number, the Rig, Sama, Yajur, and
Atharva. The Big- Veda, which contains their oldest
material and in its oldest form, lias, in its Sanhita or
collection, some 11,000 or 12,000 distichs or liichas
(from whence it receives its name), arranged in Sidctas,
or Hymns, principally according to* their authors and
the gods to whom they are addressed. The Yajur (li-
terally sacrificial) Veda, occurs in two collections — the
Krishna, or Black, the more ancient, bearing also the name
of the TaiUiriya (probably derived from the school or
sect by whom it was formed) — and the ShuJda, or White,
bearing also the name of the Vdjasanei/a, of an origin
similar to that now* mentioned. A large portion of
its materials in both forms is derived from the Rig,
to about the half of wdiicli it is equal in the ex-
tent of matter in both of its forms united.* The Santa
Veda, w'hich is said by the Brahmans to have 7,000
verses, f draws almost the whole of its contents from
the Rig, selecting them, however, iu small portions from
particular hymns, and arranging them principall}'^ for
sacrificial chanting at the soma sacrifices by a parti-
cular class of priests. J The Atharva VMa, which is said

*-In the Black Yajur Veda, there appear in the MS. before me
to be about 1836 distichs.

f In Dr. Stevenson’s edition it occupies only some 3,395 lines. In
Benfey’si it has about 2735.

Though most of the Hymns (Siiktas, laudations, — from sii good and
ai-ta spoken) of the Rig-Ve da are intended for personal and family
use, it is obvious from some of them, of later composition than their
associates in the Sanhita or collection, that a somewhat definite order
had been adopted by the parties acting as priests when these later
hymns were composed. Thus, e. g. in R. V. ii. 5. varga 17, we have

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE A'RYAS.

to have G,015 verses, is posterior to the others in compo-
sition ; and it is mostly filled with incantations and curses
and blessings.. It takes only a few of its pieces from
the hymns of the Rig', and principally from those of
latest composition.

The representation of what may be called the Vedic
jieriod of time is to be sought for principally in the Jlig-
Vcda, because the pieces which it contains are found
individually, though not in chronological arrangement,
in their original form, and because it is the great fount
from which the contents of the other Vedas have, in so far

as they represent that period, been drawn ; and to it
the chief inquiries into that period have to be directed.

The chronological limits of the oldest Vedic period,
ju'operly called by Dr. Max Muller the Chhandas, — that
in which the Chants or Sono-s of the Vedas were first
composed, — has been shown by that able scholar, in per-
fect consistency with the researches of other orientalists,
to range from between the year 1200 to 1000 B. C.,"^
embracino- the time, accordino^ to our received Hebrew
chronology, intervening between Gideoif the judge, and
Solomon the king, of Israel-

The light which the Vedas, viewed in connection with
the language in which they are composed, throw on
the ethnical relationship and geographical position, and
social condition, of the Indians at that remote period, ,

this verse ; “ Thine, Agni, is the office of the Ilotr, of the FotrJ., of

the Fitvij, of the Ncslit.^i ; thou art the Agnidhm of the devout ; thine
is the function of the Prashastri ; thou art the Adhvaryu and the
Brahma ; and the householder in our dwelling.”

* History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 572.

WHAT CASTE IS.

71)

tliongh of a limited, is still of an interesting and valu-
able, character.

The language of tlie Vedas, — which afthr it enjoj'ed
posterior culture, came to be denominated the Sanshrita
(literally concreata) or cultivated, — has been found to be
intimately connected, both in grammar and vocables,
not only with the ancient languages of Persia, ultimate-
ly denominated the Zand and Pahlvi, but wuth the
Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, and other European lan-
guages, comprehended in the Indo-Teutonic family. Of
these languages, it is not the parent, but ijie sister or
cousin, as has been seen from their philological compar-
ison, each of them throwing its own light on the pecu-
liar forms and states in wdiich their oldest words first
became current, when established by conventional
usage ; and each of them containing proofs of subsequent
invention and modification of words accordino- to the cos-
mic and social experience, thought, feeling, and culture
of the divergent and, in some instances, Avidely-separated
tribes to which they belong. They are merely fragments
of an older language spoken by the progenitors of these
tribes, acknowledging a common origin, and long kept
united by intercourse and common infcerests.On this
matter a perfect consent of orientalists has been gener-
ated and expressed of late years. The qase has been
• well put by Dr. Max Miiller, who, after giving examples
of the grammatical afiinity and verbal accordance of
the cognate languages now referred to, thus Avrites : —
“ Hence all these dialects point to some more ancient lan-
guage Avhich was to them what Latin was to the Romance
dialects, — only that at that early period there was no liter-

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE A'RYAS.

ature to preserve to us some remnants of that mother-
tougiie that died in giving birth to the modern Arian
dialects, such as Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Gothic,
Windic, and Celtic- Yet, if there is any tnith in in-
ductive reasoning, that language was once a living lan-
guage, spoken in Asia by a small tribe, nay originally
by a small family living under one and the same roof,
as the language of Caraoens, Cervantes, Voltaire, and
Dante, was once spoken by a few peasants who had
built their huts on the Seven Hills near the Tibris. If
we compare the two tables of paradigms, the coinci-
dences between the language of the Veda and the dialect
spoken at the present day by the Lithuanian recruit at
Berlin aregreaterby far than between French and Italian ;
and, after Bopp’s Comparative Grammar has been com-
pleted, it will be seen clearly that all the essential forms
of grammar had been fully framed and established be-
fore the first separation of the Arian family took place.”* * * §

The Sanskrit is more closely allied to wdiat has been •
called the Zand,f the language of the remains of the an-
cient Zoroastrian literature, than to anv of its other cos’-
nate tongues. So much is this the case that some re-
spectable orientalists, as the late General Vans Kennedy^
and Mr. JohnEomer of the Bombay Civil Service,§ have

* !Muller on Comparative Mythology (Oxford Essays, 1856j p. 13.

t This word is widely applied by the Parsi's both to the text and
comments of their ancient books ; but, as suggested by Dr. Muller,
it is probably connected with the Sanskrit Chhandas, poetical metre,
or Chants.

^ Researches into the Affinity of Languages, pp. 162-192.

§ Zend : is it a language ? London, 1858.

WHAT CASTE IS.

held that the Zand is merely an artificial fabrication from
the Sanskrit made by the Farsi priests of India. On this
matter we made the following; remarks in 1842 : —
“ Whether or not the Farsi priests in India, from tlieir
traditional reminiscences of the ancient languages could
have fabricated some of the Zand writings, I shall not
positively assert. There is a poverty in the expression
of some of these wTitings, particularly of the minor litur-
gical pieces, which shows that their authors had no
ready command of the language in which they wrote.
There is an approach to Gujarati idiom, in some
instances, and to a Gujarati corruption of Sanskrit,
which at one time awakened considerable suspicions in
my mind. Viewing the matter of the Zand language,
however, in its general aspect, I have no hesitation in
declaring that none of the exiled and depressed Farsi
priests in India can be supposed to have had the ability
to invent that language, with its extensive and minute
, grammatical forms, and with its abundant and regular
analogies to the Sanskrit, Fersian, Fahlvi, Greek, Latin,
and Germanic languages, as so distinctly evinced hy
Bopp and Burnouf, and evident to the general student,
and to write of a state of society altogether different
from that in wdiich they themselves were placed, and
in many respects dissimilar to that to which the legends
of the Shahnamah and other similar -works, to which
they attach some importance, refer.”*

The judgment here expressed has been amply con-
firmed by the latest lingual researches both in Europe
and India- It is now admitted hy .every competent

* Autlior’s work on tlie Farsi Keligion,pp. 40G-7.

ORIGIN OF CASTE-TIIE A'RYAS.

philologist that both the Sanskrit and the Zand have
not only had a common parent ; but that the people
among whom they originally assumed their ultimate
forms were longer united in social fellowship than the
peoples, diverging- from the same common stock,
with whom the Latin, Greek, and other Indo-Teutonic
languages received their peculiar expansion and culture.
]\lost interesting- has it been to observe that the
predominant race mentioned in the Vedas bears through-
out these works the designation of A'ryya, (or A-rya) thus
indicating the country from which it came to India — the
Airya o? the Parsi sacred 'writings, applied both generi-
cally to the land devoted to the doctrines and rites of
the Avasta (the Zoroastrian liturgical course and code)
as opposed to Tuirya, and specially to Airyana Vaejo, the
pure or primitive Airya- This Ainja is the Ariya of the
Persian and tlie Arriya of the Scythian tablets of the
Achsemenian Kings at Behistun* ; the Anana of the
Greeks, recognized in the designation of the Arxan
people as early as the times of Herodotusf ; and the
eastern h 'an of modern days. The value of this dis-
covery, which belongs to European research, is enhanced
and not diminished by the fact that the modern
Brahmanical commentators on the Vedas have interpreted
the word A'rya merely as a designation, meanfng

* See Eawlinson’s Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions in Journal of
R. A. S. vol. X. ; Westergaard, in Transactions of R. S. N. A. ; and
Norris on the Scythic text of the Behistun Inscriptions, in J. R. A. S.
vol. XV.

-j- Sec the passages of Herodotus, referring to this matter, extracted
and illustrated in Muir’s Sanskrit Texts, vol. ii. pp. 289, 290.

WHAT CASTE IS.

“ respectable as it testifies to tlie success Avith which
foreigners, so long debarred from the. acquisition and perus-
al of the YMas, are now studying them. Though, as
we have elsewhere said, “ There are instances in the
Vedas in which the word A'Tya seems to be used in the
sense of high or respectable, this is perhaps a figurative
use of the word, according to the well-known analogy
of our adjective frank," expressive of the qualities
strikingly exhibited in the Frank people. In the event
of arya or arya, in the sense of high or respectable,”
being the origin of the name of the countiy, A rya is
probably equivalent to “ Highlands.”* This opinion is
strengthened by the notice taken of Airyana Vaejo in
the first fargard of the Vandidad of the Parsls, which is
there mentioned as the first of the countries created by
Ahura-Mazda or Hormazd, and as having had a change
of climate produced in it by Anghro-Mainyu or Ahriman,
o’ivinof, according to one form of tradition mentioned in
the text, ten months of winter and only two of summer,
and according to another seven of summer and five of
winter, — thus indicating, when the legends are interpreted,
both a high elevation and a northern latitude. Professor
Lassen supposes that this district was on the western
slopes of the Belurtag and Mustag, in the district in
which the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes rise ; and that it
formed the original seat of both the Iranian and Indian
nations.t Its connexion with the former is rendered pro-
bable not merely by geographical considerations, but by
the. fact that Persian is spoken in the district to the pre-

* Author’s India Three Thousand Years Ago, p. 17.

t Lassen’s Indische Altherthumskunde, i. 526-527.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE A'RYAS.

sent day by tlie oldest tribes of Kashghar, Yarkand,
Khoten, Aksii (the Oxus land), Turfan, and KhamiL*
On the course of the spread of the AVyas from the
quarter now mentioned, but little light can now be shed.
Their locations as comprehended in the districts
known to the early Iranians are thus enumerated in
the Tarsi Vandidad. We give their names in parallel
columns, with the identifications which have been made
of them by several distinguished literary authorities.

Vandidad. Pdrsis. (a)

2 -Airyana Vaejo. Iran

C'ughdho Shurik ....

3 Mduru Marwa ....

4 Bakhdi Bokhara . .

SXicdi Ifesapur ..

G Hardy Haleb

(Aleppo)

7 Vaekereta, the Kabul

Duzbaka (Hell
land)

8 Urva Orwe

9 Khefita, with Gurgana or

Bchrkiina. Jurgan.

10 Haraqaiti ....Hermand ..

11 liaetumat .... Sistan ....

12 Kagha Rei ^

13 Chakhra Chin

14 Varcna Kirman or

Padashkhir-

gar,

15 Hapta-llefidu Hindustan. ,
(Seven Rivers)

16 (Described) . . Khorasan , ,

Bumoiif. (b)

Ariana

Sogdiana

Country of the
two Marwas.

Bactra

Kisaia

Land of the
Zarangaj and
Drangaj.§
Sejistiin

Lassen, (c) llaug. (d)

Ariana Ariana.

Sogd Gan of 5ugh-

dho.f

Maru, Marw

Bactra Bactra.

Nisaia Nisaia.

Herat Aria (of the

Greeks) Herat.

, Sejistan, with Sejistan.

its capital
Dushak.

Unknown Kabul

Hyrcania Kandahar.

Arachosia . . . . Arachotus . . • . Arachosia.
Etymandros Etymandros •• Hilmend (valley,
(near Hermand- near river of

river. same name).

‘Pa7«‘ Rhaga: of the

classics, pre-
sent Rei.

• Chinrem of Fer- City in Khora-

dausi. san.

Varuna of the Ghilan.

Indians.

The Seven
dies.

In- The Seven
dies.

In- Indus

Country
(seven rivers).
Near “ the cir-
cumambient

* See Lassen, ut supra.

t Ofrtolcmy. t Having for its dwelling-place 5ughdo.

§ In Etymology corresponding with the Sanskrit Sarayu. ^ Near Telierdn.

(a) Author's Tdrsi Religion, p. 294. (b) Commentaire sur 1’ Yacna.

<c) Indische .Utherthumskunie i. p. 527-26.

, (d) First Chapter of Vandiddd in Bunsen's Egypt, vol. iii. pp. 473-500.

WHAT CASTE IS.

Tlie Baron Bunsen* thinks that the districts above men-
tioned were the halting places of the ATvas in their gradual
mai-ch and progress, by extension, to the land of the Seven
Rivers ; hut without taking this easy view of what may
he only a general geographical notice according to the
notions of the ancient Zoroastrians, we may neyertheless
refer to the first fargard of theVandidad as throwing some
light on the expansion of the A'ryas in the du-ection of
India, into which they probably entered either by the
western passes of the Hindu Kush, by the eastern road
leading from Kabul to the Indus, or from Hirdt, round
the promontories of the Paropamisus through Arachosia
to Ghazna, and thence by the Boland Pass to the Indus.t
On the position of the AVyas in their original Indian
seats, we haye lately thus written : —

“ At the time at which the earlier portions of the
A’edas were composed, the A rvas were principally located
oil the hanks of the various atilueiits of the Indus and
the province now denominated the Panjah. Though
Savana A'charva, the great Brahmaiiical commentator on
the ^ edas, who flourished so late as the fourteenth
century after Christ, interprets the rivers mentioned in
the Vedas as the great sti'eams of modern India, the text
of the Veda gives him no authority for so douig. The
rivers of the Vedas seem all to have been before the
immediate observation of the writers of the Hymns
{Siiktas) of which the collection of the Rig Veda is com-

* Egypt iii p. 459-99.

I These are the routes indicated by Las.sen. (Indische Alther-
thumskunde, i. p. 531). Dr. 31. Jlidler (Hist, of Ancient Sanskrit
Literature, p. 15.) also joins with them the narrow jiasses of tlie
Himalaya. *

£.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE ATvYAS.

posed. ‘ Thou Indra hast rescued the kiue, thou liast
won the Soma juice ; thoii hast let loose tlie seven rivers
to flow-’* ‘ Thou didst traverse ninety and nine streams
like a hawk.’ ‘ His exploits are most glorious, in that
lie has replenished the four rivers of sweet water, spread
over the surface of the earth.’f “ All (sacrificial) viands
concentrate in Agni (the god of fire) as the seven great
rivers [united] flow into the ocean.”]; In the Paiijah, we
liave fom', or five, or seven, or more, great rivers, accord-
ing as we cross it to the North or South. It is oh-
viou.sly this district "which is denominated in the Vandidad
of the Parsis, as above, the Hapta Hendu^ or Seven
Indies, the word Heudu springing from Sindhu, the
Sanskrit name of the Indus. Indeed, the Indus is
.specifically mentioned in the Veda as that river on the
hanks of which some of the compo.sers of the Vedas
actually lived. Thus, we have, “ May Sindhu, the
renowned hestower of wealth hear us (fertilizmg our) broad
fields withwater.”^ “ I repeat with a (willing) nhnd the
praises of Bha\ya [a king] dwelling on the banks of the
Sindliud'W In one of the hymns of tlie Rig- Veda, three
specific streams are thus mentioned as connected with
the worshippers of the Vedas : — ‘ Gloriously shine forth,

TVilson’s Eig-Veda, Vol. 1. p. 88. See also p. 99.

flbid. p. 1G8. JIbid. p. 189.

§ Vandidad, 1st fargard.

^ Sayana Acharya, as hinted by Prof. Wilson, Eig-Veda, ii. p. 3,
understands by the word Sindhu here, 5r?mTJir^ Tf.*, the god presiding
over waters. Even in this sen.se, however, it is nothing but the per-
sonified Indus.

Rig-Veda, 2nd asht. 1st adh. 11th v.

WHAT CASTE IS.

O Agiii, in tlie places in wliich the descendants of Manii,
[the first or representative Aiyan man] inhabit, on the
hanks of the Drishadvati, the A'payd, and the’ SarasvaA* * * §
These streams, I am of opinion, are connected with the
south-western and not with the south-eastern system of
Indian ris ers Two of them are tliiis noticed hy Maim :

‘ The country between the divine rivers Sarasvati and
Drishadvati fonned hy the gods, is called Brahniavai-ta.”t
The Sarasvati is the Sarsuti north-west of Thaneshar
(Sthaneshvar), as noticed hy Professor "Wilson in his
Vishnu Purana.]; It seems, from the manner in which
it is sometunes spoken of in the Vedas, to have been a
favoiuite with the ATyas and tliis probably because of
some resemblance, — such perhaps as that of losing itself
in the sands, for it etymologically means a lake, — which
it bore to the Haraqaiti, a river in the original Anya, of
which it was the namesake.|i The Drishadvati is supposed

* JtFR- BTfutritr Rrfrrf. Test of Ei<?-Vecia

c N "o O

by Muller, toI. ii. p. 747.

I Manu ii. 17. Sii’ W'illiam Jones says, “ frequented by the gods,”
but the original is formed by the gods.

I Wilson’s Vishnu Purana, p. 180.

§ Vasishtha devotes to it alone two hymns in the 5 th Ash taka of
the Rig- Veda.

II For the identification of the name Haraqaiti Avith Sarasvati,
we are indebted to Bumouf (Commentaire sur le Yagna, Notes et
E'claircissements, p. xcii.) From Haraqaiti, the district of Aracliotia
of the Greeks (Arrian. Exped. Alex. iii. cap. 23 ; Strab. lib. xv.
c. 2 ; Dionys. Perieg. v. 1096 ; Plin. lib. vi. cap. 25] derived its
name. Burnouf, while ascribing a common origin to the names
Haraqaiti and Sarasvati, felt unable to say whether Persia or India
can claim the original. Noticing, however, the district of Haroyo,

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE A'RYAS.

to have been in the neighhonrliood of tlie Sarasvati. I am
not aAvare that the A'paya has been identified, though it
may he the Vipapa, mentioned in the Mahahharata* along
witli the Drishadvati and Vipasha. In another of the
Imnns of the Rig-Veda, the rivers Vipat, — the equivalent
according to etymology and to the Brahmanical commenta-
tor on the Veda, of the Vipasha of the Mahahharata,
and the origin of the present Beas, — the Ilyphasis or
Bihasis of the Greeks, and the Chhutudri — in later times
the Shatudri or SatleJ, — are mentioned as holding a
conversation with the sage Vishvamitra. the author of
many of the Vedic hymus.f The Vipashi and the
dwellers on the Vitastd, — the Hydaspes, or Jhelum,
— and the Saryu, (probably not that near Ayodhya^, are
mentioned in a hymn of Vamdeva.| It is thus seen that
the Panjab and its neighbourhood formed the original
habitat of the Indian A'ryas. The rivers of the south-

mentioued in the Vandidad of the Parsis, and identifying the Avord Avitli
Sarayu tiie name of an Indian river ^now the Sarju,) he justly
observes that the Zand Haroyo is the more ancient form of the word
as far as the vowels are concerned (p. ciii. et seq.) Lassen concurs in
the views of Bumouf. He notes also the agreement of the Zand
Haraqaiti Aviththe Ilarakhvatis of the cuneiform inscriptions and of the
people, too, of these inscriptions called Hariwa (in the plural), con-
tracted'for Harayawa, from Harayu the river, noAv named the Heri-
md. The name of Harayu {Sarayit in Sanskrit), he thinks Avas given
in after times by the Indians to the river near Ayodha, in com-
memoration of that of Arachosia.

* Bhishma Parva, ii. 342. Langlois, in his translation of the
Rig-Veda, tom. ii p. 230, says,” “ Je ne sais quelle est la riviere qui
portait la nomme d’Apaya.

I Rig-Veda, Muller’s text, vol. ii. p. 828.

J Rig-Veda 3d Adh. Gth. Asht. 20th — 22d. v.

WHAT CASTE IS.

eastern system arc brought to notice in the more advanced
portions of the Rig-Veda, The Yamuna and the Gomaf 'i
are first mentioned 1)V Shayavashva, ‘ a descendant of
Atri,” in the fourth Aslitaka."^ The Ganga (Ganges) is
only once mentioned, and that in the eighth or last
Ashtaka.f I have seen no allusion to the tiger in the
Vedas,' though occasional mention is made in them of the
lion. This is a presumption that the Rishis, at the time
of their composition, had not yet reached the land of the
tiger. The distinctive lake Sharyauavati is sometimes

* Rig- Veda 4tli aslitak, 3d adliy. (Muller, ii. 452.) The
Yamuna is also mentioned by Vasishtha, viewed by the Hindu legends
as a contemporary of Vishvamitra, Rig-Veda 5tli asht. 2d adh.
In reference to the Gomati, Professor Wilson 27th. Varga, (iii. p.
34G) says : “ It would be the Gomati river in Oude,” or it may

be a river of the same appellation, more to the north-west “ rising
in Kulu, a feeder of the Beyah, or Vyasa.”

f This is in a hymn addressed to the personified Rivers, the 4th
of the 3rd. adhy. In this hymn, the SincUiu (which is in the masculine
gender, while all the others are in the femininp) is spoken of as the
chief l iver. With it are invoked other rivers in the following order :
— Gangd ; Yamuna ; Sarasvatl ; Shutudn, with the Parnsjad, the
Ilydraotes from “ Iriivati” ; the Asihii, the Chandrabhiiga, (identified
from the “ Akesines,” as by Lassen), and the 3Iam/clvridhd, the
ITtasta (Ilydaspesfor Vydaspes) ; the Arjikiga, with the Su-dtoma,
the Trishtdma, the Bdsd, the Sve'ti, and the Kublici (associated with
the Sindhu) [probably the Kophen] ; and the Gomati, and the
Knimu. The Basd several times alluded to in the Vedas, the Kuhlid^
the Anitablid, the Krumu, and the Sarayu are mentioned by Shyava-
shva in the hymn following that in which he mentions the Yamuna.
Rig-Veda, 4th asht. 3d adh. 12th v. These in all probability were
connected with the same (the Sindhu) system of rivers. In R. V.
4tli asht. 7th adh. 26th varga, the adjective Gdngija, probably
meaning “ flowing, or 'swift, river,” occurs.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE A'RYAS.

mentioned as in the dominions of the pious Rijika It
is supposed to have been in Avhat was afterwards known
as the country of Kurukshetra.”*

The A'ryas in Imha, if we may judge from the Veda
and other later works, take little or no notice of their'
entrance into the country from other regions of the world.
Yet the intelligent reader of the Vedas can easily infer
that when the materials of these works were prepared, the
Aryas of whom they treat were not in then- primitive
country. They counted their years l)y “ winters,” indi-
cating a country in Avhich the cold season was peculiarly
marked.f They laid great stress on the ashvamedha, or
horse-sacrifice like the northern tribes. Compared with
their neighbours they had a white or fam complexion.
I’hey were not fully or peaceably established in the terri-
tories ill which they were then found. The facts to which
I liave now referred have not escaped the notice of the
learned and cautious translator of the Rig- Veda, Profes-
sor H. H. Wilson. “ That they (the ancient Indians),
he says, had extended themselves from a more northern
race is rendered probable from the jieculiar expression
used, on more than one occasion, in soliciting long life,
Avhen the worshipper asks fora hundred winters (himas),
a boon not likely to be desired by the natives of a warm
climate. They appear also to have been a fau-com-
plexioned people, at least comparatively, and foreign

* 7th asht. 2d Adh. 5th varga. India Three Thousand Years ago,
p. 21-25.

t Dr. Stevenson -was, I believe, the first person to direct attention
ty this fact. See his translation of the Sama-Veda, p. 86. In addi-
tion to this first translation of the Sama, we have that of Dr. Benfey,
in German, accompanied by a critical apparatus.

WHAT CASTE IS.

invaders of India, as it is said that India (the god of the
Ether or Fuiuament) divided the fields among his white-
complexioned fiiends after destroying the indigenous har-
hariaii races, for such there can he little doubt we are to
understand by the expression Dasyu, which so often recm-s,
and which is often defined to signify one who not only
does not perform religious rites but attempts to harass
then- performers.”* The Dasyus, here mentioned, are
doubtless the Daqi/us of the Parsi sacred imtings, and the
Dahxjas of the Behistun tablets, rendered by “ countries”
or “ provinces,” probably of an exterior position like the
Goim or Gentiles of the Hebrews. They were not alto-
gether barbarians ; for they had distinctive cities and
other establishments of at least a partial civilization,
though the A'ryas, lately from more bracing climes than
those which they inhabited, proved too strong for them.'f'

That the Aryas of India had been most intimately con-
nected with the Iranians, we have decided proof, not only
in the relationships of their language, and their common
designation now adverted to, but in much which (irith
certain antagonisms easily understood on the principle of
posterior religious specidation and contest) was common
in their early relijfious creed and obseiwances. Many of
the gods, or objects of worship, of the Veda and the Ai asta
are identical- Each of these works has its god of Fire in
Ayni and A tars, which, howevei-, ai-e probably not ehino-

* Wilson’s Eig-Yeda, vol. i. p. xlii.

f Author’s India Three Thousand Years Ago, p. 19. In Eig-
Yeda, 3d asht. 1st adh. 12th varga, Indra and Agni are represented
as overthrowing ninety cities of which Ddsas >vere the lords ( ddsa
patnih purah).

OKIC.IN OF CASTE-THE A RYAS AND IRANIANS. 89

logically connected with one another. Vixyii or Vatu,
the Vedic AYind, is the Zandic Vaijd or Vata. The Indian
designations of the Sun, Asura, Mitni, Silr, Siiri/a and
Scar, find their equivalents in the Iranian Mithra,

Hvare (gen. hard), often given as Hvare-Kshaeta, the
ruling or glorious sun. Corresponding with the Sanskrit
Ushas, the Dawui, w^e have the Zandic UsIidongJi. The
moon (Chandra)»m5 of the Veda, is recognized as the
Mdongh of the Avasta. The A'pah or Waters, per-
sonified in the Vedas, and the Aptyas there represented
as water gods, have as their correspondents, in the
Avasta, A'po and A'thwya, Among the personifica-
tions of the Veda is Ayhci,* the goddess of evil, cor-
responding in some respects (though not with tlie dual-
istic notions of Zoroaster) with the Ahriman of the Par-
sis, or in Zend Anghro-Mainyu, the ugly-minded or evil-
minded-one. In the Vedic Vanina (the ovpavdg of the
Greeks) we have, in the ideaofboundlessheavenly space, the
correspondent of the Varena of the Avasta. The Vishve-De-
vas, spoken of in the Vedas as the Collective gods, and some-
times as special gods, the Protectors of men, correspond, with
numerical and other modifications, with the Amshds-
pands and Izads of the Parsis.f The Piiris, or typical

* See Note in India Three Thousand Years Ago, p. 72.

f “ The Zand word for Izad is yazata, which means an object
of worship. It corresponds exactly Avith the Sanskrit
yajata, which occurs in the Rig-Veda (Sanhita B. I. ch. iii. h.
34, st. 7 ) and Avhich is explained by Sayana the commentator, by
yaslitavya, and rendered by Rosen sacris celebrandus. M.
Burnouf translates it by “ digne qu’on lui ofFre le sacrifice.” See
Journal Asiatique, Octobre 1840. The Zand for Amshaspand is
amesha-spenta. The words of avIucIi this name is composed, are
correctly represented by Edal Darn (Maujazat-i-Zarthu.sht, p. 20,)

WHAT CASTE IS.

ancestors often acltlressed in tlie Vedas, correspond with
the Parsi Faruhars* The Soma, as a plant, and as
the fermented juice of a plant, much used in sacrifice, and
as a deified power delighting god and exhilirating
man, even to inspiration, stands in tlie same relationship
in the Haoma of the Avasta. In the ninth Ha of the
Yagna of the Pdrsis, Tlaorna, as a god, is represented as
teacliing Zoroaster that the first person who consulted
him was Vivanghao, the father of Yimd, or Jamshid ; the
second, A'thwya, the father of Thrayetyaono, or Faridun ;
the third Sam, the father of Urvdkhsyo and Kerepafpo ;
and the fourth Paourusacpo, the father of Zaratlmstra, or
Zoroaster.f In the Veda, most of these concepts appear
with their own peculiarities. The correspondent in the
Veda of Yimo, — who with the Iranians was their first or
ideal man, the great establisher of their colonization and
agriculture and pecoriculture, — is Yama, the Subduer,
or God of human Destiny, dealing with the human
race, not in its earthly golden age, but in its ultimate
state beyond the grave..J The father of Yama, in the
Veda, is Vivashvat, the Vivanghat or Vivanghao of the
Ya^na. The wife of Yama, in the Veda, is Yann the
wife or sister of Yimo, and (to judge from the Paisi

by ‘ e.Kalted immortals,’ [or existences, cr saints].” Author’s work on
Parsi Religion, p. 129.

* The nominative singular is in Zand, Fravashis. The noun is
feminine. The Zand names, or rather denominations, of the Faruhars
have a figurative meaning.

f Author’s Parsi Religion, p. 400.

i See "Westergaard on Ancient Iranian Mythology, in J. B. B. R.
A. S. 1853.

ORIGIN OF CASTE- THE A'RYAS AND IRANIANS. 91

Buudeshne) Jeme or Jemake* Trita, or, Traitana
(the adjective form of the same name), is a mythological
personage of the Veda associated with Yama, and, as
pointed out by l)r- Roth, the correspondent of Thray^t-
aonaA Kereqacpo, as shown by the same scholar, has
also a figurative position in the Veda. Nahanazdista
and Xdbhdnedishtha the son of Mann (R. V* viii. 1.29
are also remarkable mythical accordances, both in the
Avasta and Veda.t The form of the hymns of the
Yagna and the Yagts of the Avasta, as noticed many
years ag:o, has much resemblance to that of the Veda.
The designations, both characteristic and technical, of
the priests and worshippers of the Veda and of the
Avasta often asree.*! So do the words used in these
works expressive of praise and sacrifice-H And so do
some of the common instruments of worship, as the

* Dr. Rotli, to whom we are greatly indebted for the illustration
both of the Veda and Avasta, first brought this coincidence to notice in
the Z. D. I\r. G. vol. iv. p. 417.

+ See Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morg. Ges. baud ii. s. 216 ; and
abstract of Roth’s paper by Dr. J. Murray Mitchell in Journal of B. B.
R. A.S. July, 1852. Atliimja, (in Persian Aibin or Aitfa,) as mentioned
in the passage from the Yacna quoted above, is the flvther of Thraetyaono.
The patronymic of Trita, in the Veda (R. V. i. 7. v. 21) is A'ptya, a
water ruler. Trita in the Veda fights against the aerial serpent {ahis'^
or enemy, carrying off the cows (clouds) which would otherwise yield
their nourishing millc ; and TJiraetaona opposes the ashi-dahak, the
destroying (earthly) serpent, the author of evil.

J See Lassen’s Ind. Altherthumskunde, i. 516.

liSee Pars! Religion by the Author, pp. 226-227. To the instances
there given that of the Sanskrit Atharva and the Zand A'thrava, a
priest, literally a Fireman (ut sup. p. 209), may be added.

II Pars! Religion, pp. 268-271.

WHAT CASTE IS.

Havni of the Brahmans and the Havana of the Parsis*
Even the divergency and antagonism of the religion
of Zoroaster from that of the Rishis of the Vedas,
is in many particulars like that which in the coarse
of speculation and reform might easily appear among
a people originally associated together, but after-
wards following a peculiar religions and social develop-
ment. The word Deva (or Devas), as has often been
shown, musthave been a desio-nalion in the original Ira-
nian race of any Divinity before even the separation from
one another of the peoples known as Greeks and Romans
<in whose languages it appears as 0fosand Deus) ; and it
could only' be the peculiar mythological and idolatrous
application of the term by the progenitors of the Indians,
or by the Indians themselves, which led the Zoroastrians
to employ it as a designation of a Devil. In the \ edas
the word Asura is applied to the Sun and Fire, in the
sense probably' of Lord or Master; but the Brahmans, as
if retaliating against the Zoroastrians, who had applied it
to their good God, in tlie form of Ah ara- Mazda, or
mnltiscient Lord, made it afterwards the designa-
nation of a Devil.t Even in many of the hymns of
the Vedas, the terrestrial enemies of the A ryas, as well as
iheir unseen enemies, are denominated Asiiras, as will
immediately appear. In illustration of the connection
of the Iranians, and AVyas, other circumstances, bearing
especially'- on physiognomy', could, if necessary, be
brought forward. The great fact to be borne in mind
is, that the A'rvas are first found in India as strangers

* Compare Aitareya Biahmana, vii. 4. 19, with Vandidad, farg. xiv.

j See Note iu India Three Thousand Years Ago, p. 78.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE A'RYAS AND IRANIANS. 9-’>

and foreigners not fully established in the land, as will
still more appear from passages now immediately to be
adduced from the Rig-Veda.

In the Rig-Veda, as might l)e expected from the fact
that it consists of laudations and sacrificial songs of the
Gods, no formal and direct information on the early social
state of the Aryan community is to be expected. It is
only from poetical and historical allusions there occur-
ring that anything can be learned respecting the
society of their own day or of more ancient times. These
allusions, however, are pretty numerous, and when com-
pared together productive of curious and valuable results.
In collecting the information to be found in the Veda
bearing on the origin and growth of Caste, it is necessary
to look to the A ryan community in two distinct aspects,
— that which respects its connection with the exterior,
partly amalgamated, or hostile, tribes with which it came
in contact, and that which respects its own social condition
and development.

The A ryas, we find from the Rig-Veda, though in
some respects an interesting people, and considerably ad-
vanced in civilization,* had the pride of race in an ex-
travagant degree. They were an aspiring, a domi-
neeiing, and an intolerant people, with strong antipathies
of race andreligion,and showing great contempt and hatred
of the other tribes with whom they came in contact. As
this pride of race, violence, and intolerance were special
features of Caste when formally established, it may be well
for us to collect the piincipal notices which we have of
their earliest manifestations in the Veda now mentioned.

“ Discriminate 0 Indra between the A'ryas, and those who are

* See India Three Thousand Years Ago, pp. 29-34.

WHAT CASTE IS.

Dasyus : piini.sliing those who perform no religious rites (avritan),
compel them to submit to the sacrifices ; be thou the powerful,
the encourager of the sacrificer.” ( Rig- Veda, ash t l.adh. 4. varga 11.)

“ Munificent hero (Indra), who easily conquerest thy foes, thou
didst put to flight (under Kutsa) the Dasyus in battle.” (Ib. i. 5. 4.)

“ Indra, the invoked by many, attended by the moving Maruts,
having attacked the Dasyus and the Shiinyus, slew them with his
thunderbolt ; the thuiiderer then divided the fields with his white
complexioned friends.” (Ib. 1. 7. 11.)*

“ (We invoke Indra) who is the lord of all moving and breathing
creatures, who first recovered the kine for the Brahman, (the repeater
of the Brahma or wordf), and who slew the humbled Dasyus." (i. 7.12 )

“ Armed with the thunderbolt, and confident in his strength, he
(Indra) has gone on destroying the cities of the Ddsas. O Indra, the
wise, the thunderef, cast thy shaft against the Dasyu, and augment
the strength and glory of the A'rya." (i. 7. 16.)

“ Sweeping away the Dasyu with the thunderbolt, you Ashw'ius
have bestowed brilliant light upon the Ary a." (i. 8. 17.)

“ Indra, who in a hundred ways is the protector in battles, in heaven
conferring battles, has preserved in the fray the sacrificing
A'rya. Punishing the destitute of rites he subjected the black skin
to Manu (the A ryan or privileged man.) (ii. 1. 19.)

“ Destroy, Indra, the tawny-coloured, fearfully roaring Pishdchi ;
annihilate all the Rakshasas." (ii. 1. 22.)l

“ Indra, lord of steeds, invigorated by our animating praise, thou
hast slain those wdio make thee no offerings, and disturb thy worship-
pers.” fii. 4. 17. ID

“ Consume, mighty one, the irreligious Dasyu, as a wooden vessel
is burnt by fire.” (ii. 4. 18.) ’Thou hast disclosed light to the A'rya:

* The translation of this verse here given is that of Professor H. H. Wilson, which
I think substaiitiallj correct, as Shinty it (whicli m.ay be translated “destroyer"’, as alter-
natively in Muir’s Sanscrit Texts, vol. ii. pp. 384), is evidently coupled in the Veda, with
Da.iyus, used in a personal sense.

f Sdyana A'charya (Muller’s Text of Rig-Veda, i. p. 807 applies Brahmana, here
used, to the “ Brdhmanajdti or Brahman Caste. But this is going too far, on modern
Brahmanical principles.

J Here both Piskdchis and Rakshasas ( soon viewed by the Hindus as devils) are
seemingly spoken of as a people.

II Wilson’s R. V. ii. p. 168.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE A'RYAS AND DASYUS. 95

the Dasyu has been placed at thy left hand. Let us honour those
who, through thy protection, surpass all their rivals, as the Dasyus
are surpassed by the A'ryas." (ii. 6. 6.)

“ Encountering the ('Asums^, carrying off Dabhiti, he burnt all
their weapons in a kindled fire, and enriched (the prince) with their
cattle, their horses, and their chariots.” (ii. 6. 15.) “ Thou hast

slain the Dasyus, Chuinuri and Dhuni, having cast them into .sleep ;
thou hast protected Dabhiti.” (ii. 6. 16.)

“ He (Indra) slew the Dasyus, and destroyed their iron cities, (ii.
6. 26.1

“ Pluck up the Dakshas, Indra, by the root ; cut asunder the
middle, blight the summit : to whatever remote regions thou hast
driven the sinner, cast upon the hater of the (ceremonial) word
(brahma) thy consuming weapon, (iii. 2. 4.)

“ Having slain the Dasyus, he protected the A rya colour (or race,
varna) (iii. 11. 17.)*

“ What do the cattle for thee among the Kikatas ; they yield no
milk for the offerings to Soma ; and they heat no fire (for the
sacrifice) ; bring (also) the wealth of Pramagandha (the usurer ?)
and subdue to us, Maghavat (Indra), the vile branch (or stock) of
the people” (naichdshdkam).(

“ Defending him (a poet, kavi,) with thy protection, the guileful,
impious ( Mdydvanbrahma, (mad against the Brahma) Dasyu has been
destroyed in the contest for the spoil. With a mind resolved on

killing the Dasyu thou comest thou hast swiftly destroyed the

Dasyus. (iii. 5. 18 )

“ Indra, 0 Soma, has slain the Dasyns in battle : Agni has con-
sumed them before the noon.” (iii. 6. 17.)

Tra.sadasyu| has bestowed upon many the ancient (gifts) which
Avere obtained by the liberal (prince) through your (favoiu- Heaven

• See p. 13.

t On this import.mt passage Prof. H. H. Wilson (R. V. iii., p. 86) has the follow-
ing note : — The Kikatas are said by Sayana, following Ydska, Nir. vi. 32, to be countries
inhabited by Andryas, people who do not perform worship, who are infidels, Ndstikas
[rather non- Aryans] : Kikata is usually identified with South Behar, showing, appa-
rently, that Vaidik Hinduism had not reached the province when this was said ; or as
Kfkata was the fountain head of Buddhism, it might be asserted that the Buddhists
were here alluded to, if it were not wholly incompatible with all received notions ot
the earlier date of the Vedas.” Kikata I think, must have been nearer to the earlier

■\VHAT CASTE IS.

and Earth) ; you too have given a horse, a son, a weapon, (for the
destruction of the Dasyus, fierce, and foe-subduing.” (iii. 7- 11.)

“ Twofold is my empire [says the King Trasadasyu, so called from
harassing the Dasyus] : — that of all the Kshatriya people, and all the
immortals are ours ; the gods associate me with the works of Varuna.
I rule over those of the human form.” (iii. 7.17.)

“ With the thunderbolt thou hast confounded the voiceless (or
noseless) Dasyus, thou hast bestowed in battle the speech-bereft foes,
(iv. 1 24.)*

“ Indra, the subduer of all, the Arya (or Lord) leads the Ddsa.
according to his wish.” (iv. 2 4.)f

“ Thou (Indra) art he who hast quickly subdued the Dasyus :
thou art the chief one who hast given preservation to the A'rya." (iv.
6. 4.)

“ Make hot the heavens, earth, and firmament, for the oppressive
race : parent-of-showers, consume them everywhere with thy

radiance, make the heaven and the firmament too hot for the haters-
of-the-Brahma. Thou hast rendered human enemies whether Ddsas
or Aryas easy to be overcome.” (iv. 6. 4 |)

“ Glorified by us, he (Indra) bows not down to the robust nor to
the firm, nor to the persevering (worshipper) who is instigated by

the Dasyus Overthrow, on the part of the A'rya, all the Ddsa

races everywhere abiding.” (iv. 6. 18-19.)

“ Thou hast destroyed the hundred impregnable cities of the
Dasyu Shambara.” (iv. 7-3.)§

seats of the Aryas than South Behar. M. Vivien de Saint-Martin (Mviir’s Texts ii.
xxii.) thinks that the country of the Kikatas must probably’ have been in Koshala or
Andh. In rendering the above verse, we have compared the versions of Prof. H. H.
Wilson and Mr. Muir with the original.

* ‘‘ Andso dasyun amrinah. Andsa, Sdyana says, means dsyarahitdn, devoid or
deprived of words, dsya, face or mouth, being put by metonymy for shabda, the sound
that comes from the mouth, articulate speech, alluding possibly to the uncultivated
dialetts of the barbarous tribes.. . .Prof. Miiller (Unit ersal History of Man, i. 346) re-
ferring to this text proposes to separate anasd into a, non, nasd, the nose, noseless.
Wilson’s R.V. iii. p 276.

t TWrr PTiirTTr q->ir T5T WT TlHiini: ||

SIHIT qrifq-irrT S’rTTr sifircyr

§ “ Shambara is more usually styled an Asura, and hence it would appe.ar that Dnsyn
and Asura are .synonimons.'' Prof. H.H. Wilson It. V. iii. p. 444.

ORIGIN OF CASTE-TIIE A'RYAS AND DAS YUS. 97

“ Agni has dispersed the impious, the chattering, faithless, riteless,
non-Si\ci'ificing Panis, the Dasyus." (v. 2. 9.)

“ Thou hast, for the sake of Dabhiti, vanquished the Dasyus
Chumuri and Dhuni.” (v. 2. 29.)

“ Put an end to the enmity which divides the Dasyus and the
Aryas." (v. 6.4.)

“ Indra and Soma burn the Rakshas, destroy them, throw them
down, ye two Bulls, the people that grow in darkness. Hew down
the mad men, suffocate them, kill them, hurl them away, and slay
the voracious. Indra and Soma, up together against the cursing
demon ! may he burn and hiss like an oblation in the fire ! Put your
everlasting hatred on the villain, who hates the Brahman [or rather
hrahna, etc.], who eats flesh (raw), and whose look is abominable.”*
(v. 7. 5.)

“ Favour the prayer (Brahma), favorrr the service ; kill the
Eakshasas ; drive away the evil.” (vi. 3. 16.)

“ Thou, Indra, favourest our rites ; thou satisfiest (by retribution)
thy revilers ; thou most excellent and powerful hero, hast smitten the
Ddsa in the middle of his thigh. Let Parvata, our friend Parvata,
with a powerful stroke, strike down from the height the riteless, in-
human, non-sacrificing, godless Dasyu." (vi. 5. 9-10.)

“ Thou, Indra, art the friend of the offering, the Lord of heaven ;
thou overturnest the stable cities ; thou destroyest the Dasyu, and
givest increase to Manu, thou Lord of heaven.” (vi. 7. 1.)

“ O Indra, object of our praises, let the godless (adeva), whether
he be an A'rya\ or a Dasyu, who wages war against us, be vanquished
by us.” (vii. 8. 14.)

“ Thou hast for the sake of the Aryas vanquished the Dasyus.
(viii. 2. 19.)

“ I, Indra, come recognizing and marking the distinction of the
Dasyu and the Arya. (viii. 4. 4.)

“ This person humbled and subdued the roaring Ddsa (hei'e viewed
as an aerial monster) with six eyes and three heads.” (viii. 5. 14.)J

• In this passage the spirited translation of Dr. Max MUller (Last Results of the
Turanian Researches, p. 344) has been adopted. A closer translaiion of the same import
is, with the original, given by Dr. John -Muir (Sanskrit Texts, ii. 406 )

t In the Rig- Veda, particularly the seventh and eight Afhtaks, A'ryas hostile to the
Rishi.s are mentioned as above.

I Several other passages of this character occur. See Muir’s Texts ii. 403,

WHAT CASTE IS.

The A'rija has been able to measure himself with the Dasyu.
Indra, the ally of Rijishvan, has destroyed the villages of Pipra, the
magical (Mayina) Asura, (viii. 7. 26.)

These passages, and others of a like nature which
could be adduced, not only bring to notice, in the
neiglibourhood of the early Indian settlements of the
Aryas, the existence of races different in colour, creed,
and customs from tliese AVyas, but reveal the deep-
seated hatred and contempt of these races by the A ryas,
who deliglited to wage war against them on religious
grounds, rejoiced in their conquest and overthrow, and
even applied, in the progress of time, their names and
designations to the imaginary aerial and spiritual beings
which, in their superstitious imaginings, they believed to
be in a constant state of hostility to their own persons
and social and religious institutions. The violent anti-
patliy and hate of race and religion, thus early manifest-
ed, liave continued to be among the most potent and
injurious elements of Caste to the present day. The
ATyas, and the tribes taken by them into alliance, have
ever nourished and cherished them, particularly as applied
to the lower tribes of the country, in the different pro-
vinces of India in Avhich they have been established,

It will have been noticed that the prevailing epithet
of the people, or peoples, to whom in the preceding ex-
tracts the A'ryas are represented as opposed, is that of
Dasyu- We have already mentioned Avhat w’^e consider
the original meanino- of the denomination — Gentes, those
of the country,* or Aborigines or Natives- The Iranian
correspondents of the name warrant us to attach to
it this meaning. With reference to its peculiar implica-
* See above, p. 88.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE A’llYAS AND DASYUS. 00

tions, however, Dr. Max Miiller says, Dasyu in the
Veda is enemy''* The Brahmans, to the present day,
marking' their traditional animus, make it the equivalent
of slave and robber-

llas/ihasa, it will also have been seen, is another de-
nomination given to the tribes to whom the AVyas
placed themselv'es in hostility. Etjnnologically it means
the “ strong,'’ the “ powerful,” the “ protecting,” the
“ gigantic.” As applied to an aboriginal people, it is
used in the Veda very much as the word Repliaim is used
in the Hebrew scriptures. By the Aryas it soon had a
purely mythological meaning attached to it, characteris-
tic of both terrestrial and aerial “ monsters.” In the
ShaVpatha Brahmana of the White Yajur Veda the
Rakshasas are represented as “ prohibiters,” that is
“ prohibiters of sacrifice. ”f

Asitra is another denomination given by the A'ryas to
their enemies. It is somewhat difficult to ascertain its
import. We have already found it used as a designa-
tion of the Sun, probably in the sense of Lord or Mas-
ter, its root being possibly as, to be. Perhaps, like the
word NayoJt (dux) in modern times, it was in this
sense applied to the aboriginal tribes on account of the
number of their heads of clans. J With the Aryas, how-

* Comparative IMytliology in Oxford Essays, 1856 p. 24. Dr. M.
■with the Persian equivalents in his eye says, “ It is hardly doubtful
that the Greek ha-izaT-ns represents a Sanskrit title ddsa-pati, lord of
nations.”

f See Weber in Z. D. M. G. iii. 289, sq.

X The word Ndk, the contraction of Ndyalz, is the common epithet
(of respect) used by the lowly Mahars of the Maratlul country.
From the abundance of Ndhs connected with the Bhills of the Baida
jungles, east of Baroda, they are called Ndlcadas.

100

WHAT CASTE IS.

ever, the Asuras were soon viewed as wicked, malicious
spirits, as opposed to the Suras, or deities.

From the references which are made in the Vedas to
the power, resources, appliances, and residences of the
Dasyiis, it is manifest tliat they were found in no
contemptible position by the A’ryas when they entered
India. The subjection of them by the A'ryas required
time and strength for its accomplishment.

The state of society among the A'ryas themselves now
requires our particular attention. In connexion with
them such questions as the following occur : — Do the
symptoms of Caste, or of tendencies to Caste, appear in
the A'ryan community as it is first brought to notice in
the Vedas ? Were Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas,
Shudras, and Sankaras then found to exist ? Was a
diverse creation, — from the head, arms, thighs, and feet
of the godhead respectively, — then ascribed to the first
four of these classes ? Had they a monopoly of their
occupations and privileges, founded on creation, birth,
or descent ? Could there be no interchange of classes
among them ? Were their respective duties prescribed
to them by alleged special divine regulations I Did
legislative impedimenJ-s, with religious sanctions, exist
as to their intercommunion and marriage ? Did cere-
monial defilement follow the accidental or deliberate
touch of any classes of people with whom they came in
contact ? Were there any practices, or pretensions, of
parties among them which had the tendency to originate
Caste \

The following observations, which are merely an ex-
pansion of what we have said on this subject in a late

ORIGIN OF CASTE—TIIE EARLY PRIESTHOOD. 101

small publication, will assist us iii answering these in-
quiries.

( 1 .) The position and authority of the A/ryan priesthood
as presented to our view in the Chhandas portions of the
Vedas have comparatively speaking, hut a very limited
advancement and development. The word Brahman does
not appear in the Hymns as a fully established generic desig-
nation of a priest, or of a party belonging to an established
priesthood. It thus originated. The word brahma (from the
root hrih (hr vrih) to utter, to speak/ to make a noise,)
means prayer ; and it is applied, — as in several instances
now quoted m connexion with the Ahyas and Dasyus, — to
the ceremonial prayers of the A ryas, neglected or opposed
by the Dasyus.* In consequence, the word Brahman or
Brahma in the masculine, came to mean the utterer, or
conductor of prayer.f The Brahmans, it cannot he doubted,"
are represented in the Vedas merely as a profession, and
not as a caste. Not a word is said in these writings about
their origin as (hverse frcm that of other members of the
human family. They ask no privileges on account of ori-
gmal dignity or status. They are in the Vedas principally
a class of priests, officiating at sacrifices and other reli-
gious services, along with other specified classes of priests.
The following are instances of the ways in which they
are there brought to notice. “ The chanters chant thee,
Shataki-atu [a name of Indra], the reciters of the Richas

* Thus we have, above, the Brahman (the repeater of the hrahna
or word), p. 94 ; the hater of the brahma (or word), p. 95 ; “mad against
the brahma" (against the usage of the word), p. 95, etc.

f See article by Dr. R. Roth on Brahma and the Brahmans in
Z. D. M. G., vol. i. pp. 66-86, and the Abstract of that article pub-
lished in the Benares Magazine (Oct. 1851), by Dr. J. Muir.

102

WHAT CASTE IS.

praise thee, wlio are Avorthy of praise ; the Brahmanas
raise thee aloft like a hamhoo pole.”* “ Thine, Agni,
is the office of the Hofri, of the Potri, of the Pilvlj, of
the Neshtri ; thou art the Agnklhra of the devout,
thiiie is the function of the Prashastri ; thou art the
Adhvanjii and the Brahma' ; and the householder m
oiu’ dAA'elling.”f Here are eight kinds of priests men-
tioned, of whom the Brahma or Brahraana is the last.
Even in the highest sense of the Vedas the word BraJi-
man is used merely in a simple official sense, and applied
to an active class in the community, as when the Brahman
is mentioned along Avith the Rdjanya, or prince. J
It was ill times later than those of the oldest por-
tions of the Vedas that the AAord Brahma or Brahmana
came to to he used in the exclusiA e sense of god-horn
priest. It is not difficult, indeed, as aaiII he aftervnrds
seen, to trace the progress of the Brahman from his Vedic
profession to his suhseqiient position as maintained by
Caste. From his peculiar position at sacrifices, he was
often their conductor, — the pnrohila, or foreman, — ^for tliis.
is the literal ineaning of the Avord. This honour he
shared only with others in the first instance, many of
whom, as Vishvaniitra and his school, belonged to the
royal race. Agni, ihe god of fire, the deA'ourer, or re-

* See Text in Muller’s Eig-Veda, vol. i. p. 127. Professor Wilson
(Pig-Veda, vol. i, p. 24) reads Braliinanas. In the original here, the
Avord is Brahmanah, the plural of Brahma.

f Wilson’s Pig-Veda, A'ol. ii. p. 209, Avith the change of Brahma
for its equh'alent Brahman, as in the text (Aluller, \’ol. ii. p. 41G).
According to some authorities, altogether sixteen kinds of priests
shai'ed in the offerings on great occasions. See note in Wilson, ut
sup., AA'here the authorities are quoted and illustrated.

J Pig- Veda, i. 7. 27.

ORIGIN OF CASTE -THE RISIIIS.

103

ceiver of sacrifices, was the of tlie gods in the

skv* ; and it was meritorious for kings to have a Brahma
or BraJimana as his correspondent on earth. 1'he office
of the Puroliita and Bi ahnia gradually became hereditary ;
and the Brahma, as attached to the houses of the great,
became of growing consequence, especially in connexion
with the anointing of kings and their horse-sacrifices, on
which they counted much for conquest and progeny. His
study and learning gradually increased his influence ; and
he was constituted an adviser and counsellor. His sup-
posed peculiar’ access to the gods gave him a peculiar
sanctity. He became a legislator ; and in this capacity
he soon made himself a god-npon-eartli. Such an exal-
tation of a human mediator has often, to a certain extent,
been witnessed in other countries besides India.

(2.) The writers of the Vedas, who are denominated
Bhhis, or seers or inditers, and who were doubtless in a
religious point of view the highest parties in the Aryan
commimity,f call for support and countenance on
account of their occupation and doings, without refer-
ence to any order in societ}" enjoyed by them.J Though

* Rig-Veda i. 1. I. et in mult. loc.

f The phrase, “ As the Rishi among the Vipras” (rendered, in the
genitive plural, by “ the intelligent,” by the commentator

Madhavacharya) occurs in the Sama Veda. Author’s MS. of Ma-
dhava’s commentary, part 2nd. fol. 38. Vipra is now a synonym of
Briihman. It is rendered by “ intelligent,” in the commen-

tary on the Rig by Say ana.

J “ For the donors of (pious) gifts,” they sung, “ the suns shine in
heaven” (Wilson’s E. V. ii. 17) ; “ the givers of pious donations attain
immortality ; the givers of (pious) gifts prolong theii' (worldly) exist-
ence.” They blamed some chiefs for annoying them, Avithout claiming
any established status (ib. ii. 6).

104

WHAT CASTE IS.

these occupations may have been in some cases here-
ditary, in consequence of the establishment of schools
or classes for committing' the A ryan Hymns to memory,
they were not confined to one class of the Indian
people. They were at least from both the kingly
and the priestly classes of the population. Vishva-
mitra, to whom many of the Hymns of the Vedas
are ascribed,* and wlio in the Vishnu Purana, —
one of the most important legendary and traditional
treatises of the Hindus, — is represented as one of the
seven original Rishis of the present system of things,')'
was, as is admitted b}'^ all kinds of Hindu authorities,
originally a Majarshi, or a rishi from the rajas, though
said to be elevated to tlie Brahviarshi, or Brahman
grade of risliis, for his talents, acquirements, and observ-
ances. Jamadagni, who is mentioned also in the Veda
as a Rishi, j; — and who, in the later Hindu legends, is

* E. g., Elg-Veda, Muller, ii. p. 932, et. seq.

f Vasislitha, Kashyapa, Atri, Jamadagni, Gautama, Vishvamitra,
and Bharadvaja are the seven Rishis, according to Wilson’s Vishnu
Purana, p. 264. Other lists of the great rishis, are given with
variations in Manu, and the Puranas, etc. For the age of the
Puranas, — which are all posterior to the revival of Brahmanism after
the destruction of Buddhism, — see Appendix to the Notes of Colonel
Sykes on Ancient India.

J “ Vishvamitra is a remarkable person in the traditions of the
Hindu religion : according to the historical and Paurdnik authori-
ties, he was originally a member of the Kshatriya, or royal and mili-
tary caste, and himself for some time a monarch : he was descended
from Kuslia, of the lunar race, and was the ancestor of many royal
and saintly personages, who, with himself were called after their com-
mon ancestor, Kushikas or Kaushikas : by the force of his austerities
[sic scribunt Brachmanes], he compelled Brahma to admit him into

ORIGIN OF CASTE -THE RISIIIS.

105

the father of the reputed Avatara Parashurama, is repre-
sented as the nephew of Vishvamitra. From both
Vishvamitra and Jamadagni, numerous tribes of Brah-
mans of mixed blood, according to the legends, claim
descent. Many of the Vedic hymns are by authors
said to be either of the princely class, or to have been
raised from it to the priestly class.*

the Brahmanical order, into which he sought admission in order to
be placed upon a level with Vasishtha, with whom he had quarelled :
his descent, and the circumstances of his dispute with VasishUia,
are told, with some variation, in the Edmdijana, (ch. li. — Ixv. Schle-
gel’s edition,) in the Mdlidbhdrata, Vciyu, Vishnu, and Bhdgavata
and other Puranas : the details of the Ramayana are most ample :
the texts of the Big- Veda intimate a general conformity with those of
the Pnrdnas as to the family designation of Vishvdmitra, and to occa-
sional disagreements from Vasishtha, originating, apparently, in their
respective patronage of hostile princes : according, however, to the
heroic poems, the Puranas, and various poems, and plays, these
two saints were on very amicable terms in their relations to the
royal family of Ayodhijd, or to king Dasharatha, and his son Rdma."
Wilson’s Rig-Veda, ii, pp. 318-319. Neither the chronology nor the
geography of the authorities last mentioned is of much consequence
in reference to the Rishis, who are handed about by the traditionists
ad libitum, both in reference to time and place.

* Mr. Colebrooke, (As. Trans, vol. viii. p. 393,) long ago, noticed the
authorship of certain hymns of the Eig-Vdda as belonging to royal
authors, such as Mandhatrf, son of Yuvanashva; Shivi, son of
Ushinara; Vasumanas, son of Rohiddshva; and Pratardana, son of
Divodasa. Other hymns of the same Veda are attributed to several
of the sons of Vishvamitra as Madhuchhanda, Rishabha, and Renu ;
to Ambarisha; to Bharata, the father of Devashrava; to Medhatithi;
to Nabhaga; to Rahugana; to Vatsapriya, the son of Bhdlandana ; to
Paiuruva, of the Lunar race of kings; to Vena ; to Sudasa ; to Grit-
samada, the son of Shunahotra, but who afterwards became the son of
Shunaka ; to Devapi and Shantanu ; and to other princely authors.
Several of the hymns of the last Ashtak of the Rig-Veda are by

i06

WHAT CASTE IS.

(3.) The Rjshis and priests received in marriage the
daughters of other classes of the community. The
Brahmans of the present day are well aware of this fact •
but, in deference to their later Shastras, they maintain
that such marriages were mere indulgences, and con-
fined to the assumption of one wife of each of the higher
classes, in addition to tliose of Brahmanical rank. But
what will they make of the following story, related in
the Niti-Manjari, of Kakshivat, the author of several
Suktas in the Rig- Veda, whose mother, Ushik, — it is to
be noted, — was the reputed daughter of king Anga’s
slave ? “ Kakshivat having finished his course of study,
and taken leave of his preceptor, Avas journeying home-
ward, Avhen night came on, and he fell asleep by the
road-side ; early in the morning Raja Svanaya, the
son of Bhavayavya, attended by his retinue, came to

Kavasha Ailusha, said to be tlie son of a Ddsa, as noticed by Dr.
Muller (History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 58). A few of the hymns
of the Rig-Veda are even ascribed to females, real or imaginary, as
Shachi, the daughter of Pulomana; Shraddha, the daughter of Kama;
Goriviti, the daughter of Sakti ; and Vak, the daughter of Abhrina.

On various gottras, or families, of Brahmans mixed with, or
derived from, the regal blood, see legendary notices in Wilson’s
Vishnu Purana, pp. 369, 405, 448, 457, 454, etc.

Dr. John Muir, in his “ Original Sanskrit Texts,” vol. i. pp. 44-56,
has given a series of “ passages sufficient to prove that according to
the traditions received by the compilers of the ancient legendary his-
tory of India, (traditions so general and undisputed as to prevail over
even their strong hierarchical prepossessions,) Brahmans and Ksha-
triyas were, at least in many cases, originally descended from one and
the same stock.” Some of the cases referred to by Dr. Muir are the
same as those of the parties mentioned in the first paragraph of this
note. The historical inference ought not to be pressed beyond the
bounds indicated by Dr. M.

ORIGIN OF CASTE-TIIE RISIIIS. 107

the spot, and disturbed the Brahman’s slumbers : upon
his starting up the Raja accosted liim ^rith great cor-
diality, and being struck by his personal appearance,
determined, if he was of suitable rank and birth, to give
him his daughters in marriage. xVftcr ascertaining his
fitness, he took Kakshivat home with him, and there
married him to his ten daughters, presenting him at
the same time with a hundred nishkas of sold, a
hundred horses, a hundred bulls, one thousand
and sixty cows, and eleven chariots, one for each of
his wives and one for himself, each drawn by four
horses.” Kakshivat himself, in the Yeda, thus celebrates
the liberality of his father-in-law ; — “ From which ge-
nerous prince soliciting (my acceptance) I, Kakshivat,
unhesitatingly accepted a hundred nishkas, a hundred
vigorous steeds, and a hundred bulls, whereby he has
spread his imperishable fame through heaven. Ten
chariots drawn by bay steeds, and carrying my wives,
stood near me given by Svanaya ; and a thousand and
sixty cows followed. Forty bay horses (harnessed) to
the chariots, lead the procession in front of a thousand
followers. The Pajras, the kinsmen of Kakshivat, rub
down the high-spirited steeds, decorated with golden
trappings.”* It does not appear that Kakshivat had
any wives of his own class. The supply which he had
from the chief was more than sufficient. Other instances
of Rishis and priests marrying the daughters of kings
are often alluded to.f

* Wilson’s Rig-Veda, vol. ii. p. 14, 17-18.

f As those of Chyavana with Siilcanya, the daughter of Sharjati,
(Wilson’s R. V. 1. 139, etc.) and Jamadagni with Renuksi, the daugh-
ter of Renu.

108

WHAT CASTE IS.

(4.) The term .Ks^aOv?/a, applied by tlie Shastras, or
Law Books, to the second or warrior class in the
Hindu community, is used in the Vedas only as a de-
nominative of a party possessed of Jcshatra, or power. In
this sense it is applied to the gods, as to Indra and
Varuna, and Mitra and ^ aruna,* In tlie Vedas, the
word Kshetrapati, the “ owner of a field,” is the name
of a person possessed of landed property ; and the
name Kshatrapati, “ the possessor of power,” seems to
liave been applicable to an}'^ party exercising authority
of any kind or extent. Kshntriya is the equivalent of
of Kshatrapati. Kshatra corresponds, as noticed by
Lassen, with the Zend kshatra, which also means im-
perium, agreeing with the Greek Kparng and etymolo-
gically referring to the attribute of bodily strength.
Synonyms of Kshatriya were Vishaspati or Vis/uhnpati,
a master of the people or village community ; Baj, the
equivalent of the Latin Rex, a king ; and Bajanya, a
prince, the derivative of Baj. The kings and chiefs of
the Ary as are often praised by the Rishis in the Vedas ;
but not a word is there uttered about their emanation
by birth from the arms of the Godhead- It is a great
fact, as noticed by Professor Wilson and others, that
“ There are [in the Vedas] indications of Rajas hostile to

* Even Sayana (Muller’s R. V. iii. p. 498) views it, as applied to
the la.st mentioned gods, as the equivalent oidhana, wealth, and hala,
power. In the R. V. iii. 7. 17, Trasadasya, a royal sage who
identifies himself with the gods in the fanaticism of his devotion, says,
Rii rrdT US 3TR=rr tr^r “ i fiave a twofold

sovereignty, that of all the (power), and all the immortals

are ours.” Prof. Wilson gives “ race” as the supplied word, but this
seemi ngly on the authority of Sayana.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE KSIIATRIYAS AND VAISIIYAS. 109

the ritual who would not therefore have belonged to
the recognized militaiy order.”* The Rajanyas, as we
have just seen, were sometimes Rishis or seers. Even in
the times of the ritual Brahmanas, to be afterwards
noticed, they had the privilege of conducting sacrifices

(5.) In the time of tlie Vedas, visha (related to vesha,
a house or district t) generally meant people in general
and Vaishya, its adjective, was afterwards applied to a
householder or to what belonged to an individual of the
common people. The Latin vicus and the Greek o«Koe
are the correspondents of vesha.\\ Visha, if applied,
sometimes, to the pastoral, the agricultural, and the other
industrial classes of the community, had reference only
to their immediate occupations, without giving them any
monopoly of these occupations. In an address to the
Ashvins in the Rig- Veda from which we have already
quoted a text, we find the general interests of the com-
munity, of the worshipper, or of the institutor of the
sacrifice, thus referred to — “ Favoiu- the prayer (brahma),
favoiu- the service ; kill the Rakshasas, drive away the

* Preface to vol. ii. of Rig-Veda, p. xv.

t It has this meaning in Zand also.

t In Rig-Veda, iii. 1. 9, Agni is spoken of as the preceder of
vts/uh?i mamishndm, human beings. In iii. 8. 18, he is called vislidm
vislipati, the lord of men.

II Visha ^vas pointed out by Kuhn and Lassen as having this rela-
tionship. It occurs in the names of many of our own towns, as
Greemt'ic/i, 'SVoolwicli, etc., as indicated by Dr. Miiller. As noticed
by the antiquarian historians now mentioned, it has been preserved
in the Lithuanish loieszpatis, lord of the manor. Pati is recognizable
in the Greek ^£(jrsorrif Dnma, corresponding with the Latin damns,
is used in Sanskrit for a single house or home.

110

WHAT CASTE IS.

favour the power (khatra) and favour the manly-

sti-eugtli ; favour the cow the repre.sentative

of property) ; and favour the people (or house, visha)”*

* This passage, which occurs in the Eig-Veda, 6th. asht. 3rd. adh.
16th. varg., is a very important one. The text, omitting repetitive
clauses, runs thus : — fiT . .

.... ^^f1r^5=r r>5rrf. (Ji. s. Rig-

Veda, of B. B. Itoyal Asiatic Society.) In the Pada, the words are
separated thus I flFf# I ^ I'rlfM 1 Wq-: | f# | radtHT | I
sHTlTr: 1 . . . I R5T: 1, the word being to be sup-

plied after each of the last three words, according to the system of nota-
tion used. (Author’s MS. of Pada of R. V.) Sayana Acharya, the
commentator, under the caste feeling of later times, identifies brahma
(prayer) ^vith Brahnana (the man-that-prays, and kshatra (power)
with Kshatrii/a, the party-exercising-power, and dhenu, the cow, and
visha, the people, with the Yaishya, the party-belonging-to-the-peo-
ple. This interpretation is not to be wondered at ; but it is -without
early sanction. The mantra referred to is a favourite one with the
Brahmans; and, both as in the Rig- Veda and as in an expanded
form, it is much used in their more solemn and secret services, and
this in such a way as to show that originally it dealt -with interests
and not with castes. It occurs in this enlarged form at the com-
mencement of the Taittiriya Brahmana of the Black Yajur Veda : —
^ ^ rlFTT I 1 ^

I ^ ^ rlFTT I ?it ^ TiFfT I jTs-|^

^ TiFi# I t i rsFir-

(Author’s MS.) This may be thus translated : — “ Maintain the
2)rai/er, m.ake-it-prosperous to me ; maintain the power, make-it-
prosperous to me ; maintain the food, make-it-prosperous to me ;
maintain the milk, make-it-prosperous to me ; maintain the wealth,
make-it-prosperous to me ; maintain the offspring, make-it-prosperous
to me ; maintain the herd, make-it-prosperous to me.” Sayana, in
his commentary on this passage, identifies brahma -with the Brahman
caste, engaged for the institutor-of-the-sacrifice. Khatra, he makes
the authority-of-the-head-of-a-district. But the other terms used he

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE SIIUDRAS.

Ill

Interests here occupy the ground which in later times
belonged to particidar castes. The unity of the whole
immigrant race continued marked by the patronymic
name ATva, to which we have often referred. The
Yaishyas, in the times of the Pandavas of the great War,
according to the Mahdbharata, had considerable influ-
ence in affairs of state, as exemplified in the cases of the
wise Yidur and Yuyutsu. It was only by degrees, and
after the A'ryas had been settled in the great plains of
India, that the Yaishyas got special charge of flocks
and herds, and agriculture, and merchandise assigned
to them, as in the days of Manu ; for the time was, when
a cowkeeper {gopa, gopala, gosvdmu) was a chieftain in
their community.

(6.) The Shudras, though 1 rented by Manu and Hindu
legislation in general, as a component (though enslaved)
part of the Indian community, not entitled to the second
or sacramental birth, are not even once mentioned in the
olden parts of the Yedas. They are first locally brought to
notice, in the Mahabharata, along with the AhMras,
dwelling on the banks of the Indus. f The Abhiras, are
recognized as in that position by Ptolemy, who denomi-
nates the district in which they were found Ahiria\\

does not venture to apply to any other alleged castes. In the third
mantra of the Taittiriya Brahmana, the vital-breath, sight, hearing,
mind, speech, etc., are coupled with the supplicatory verbs, in the
same way as brahma, and kshatra, evidently showing that matters
pertaining to the institution of the sacrifice are referred to throughout.

* This last word is still used as the equivalent of Master. It is
particularly applied to classes of religionists.

I Mahabharata, Bhishma Parva, 305 (Cal. ed. ii. p. 344.)

:j: Ptol. Geo. lib. vii. p. 102. edit. Bert.

112

WHAT CASTE IS.

and their representatives are still seen in the A'hirs, a
class of shepherds and cultivators in Sindh, Kachh, and
Kathiawad. There are distinct classical notices of the
Shudras in this very locality and its neighbourhood.
“ In historical times,” says Lassen, “ their name re-
appears in that of the town SuSpoc oa the lower Indus,
and, what is especially worthy of notice, in that of the
people SuSpot among the northern Arachosians.* Thus
their existence as a distinct nation is estal)lished in the
neighbourhood of the Indus, that is to say, in the region
in which, in the oldest time, the Aryan Indians dwelt.
They [the Aryans] probably conquered these earlier
inhabitants ; and it becomes manifest from this circum-
stance, that it was from the conquest of the other Abori-
gines in the interior part of the country, that afterwards,
the name [Shudra] was extended to the whole servile
caste. This name cannot be derived from the Sanskrit;
and it is to be presumed that the right spelling should
be Sudra'\. If this be correct, it must be sounded Hiidra
in old Persian; and this is confirmed by the statement of
Megasthenes, that the Indian nations of the 'Y^paKai sent
auxiliaries to the Persians before the time of Alexander ];

* Ptol. vii. 1. 61. vi. 20. 3. They are also mentioned by Dionys.
Perieg. V. 1142, under the name SxuSfoi, in which passage other mis-
takes occur, as, e. g., Ibr jU-e<T0t vauoV'Ji TofjXoi aySpsfj S

e^'Jrercci txj^KX FlEUXcevlwv. jOtsTaTOus Se AjwviJffOU Ge^aTroyreJ 'Tct^yst^iScci

vfxiouaiy. X. T. X. must be read, or, aecording to the variant

reading, EvS^oi, and TaySaf/Sai.

f [Yet, the Brahmans connect the xvord Shudra, with Shush?’ushd,
service, though they get no real etymological help fi'om this coinci-
dence.]

t Strabo xv. 1 6. p. 687. By Steph. Byz. 'Y5afx*i. They are dis-
tinct from the 0|uSfdxai. called in Sanskrit Ksliudralca. Indische
Alterthumskunde, vol. i. p. 799-800.

OEIGIN OF CASTE— THE SHUDllAS.

113

The extension of the name Shudra to the enslaved and
servile classes of the country conquered hy the A'ryas,
ill contradistinction to the more independent and more
cordially hated tribes, such as the Chandalas, Am-
bashthas, etc-, etc-, must have occurred gradually.
Some of the Shudras, and some of the more indepen-
dent tribes in the interior land, I am inclined, with
others, to think, may have spoken a dialect not very dis-
similar to that of the ATyas, and may have been the
descendants of a prior Aryan immigration.* There seems
to have been some hesitation in tlie Aryan community
about the actual religious position to be given to the
Shudras. In the time of the liturgical Bralimanas of the
Vedas to be afterwards noticed, they were sometimes ad-
mitted to take part in the Aryan sacrifices, f Not long
afterwards, when the conquests of the Aryans were greatly

* Many of the names of the Dasyus and other enemies of the
A'ryas seem to have an Aryan meaning. There are many words cur-
rent in the northern family of Indian languages which appear to be
more cognate with the Sanskrit than immediately derived from it.
This remark is not intended to oppose the belief, also confirmed by
the state of the Indian languages, that most of the tribes which en-
tered India before the A'ryas must have been of Scythian or Turanian
origin. Of the Scythian immigrations, two at least, of extensive
character, are marked by the dififerences in the Scythian rvords of the
northern and southern families of languages.

f Roth, in Zeitschrift of the Germ. Or. Soc. vol. i. p. 83, and "Weber’s
translation of the First Adhyaya of the Shatapatha-Brahmana, also in
that Journal. In this Brahmana there occurs a remarkable passage
respecting the call of the sacrificers, to this effect : — “ If the sacrifice!’
be a Brahman, it is said, EM Come ! if he is a Vaishya, then it is
AgaM, Come hither ! with a Eajabandhu [a transposition of the
Vaishya and Rajanya having occurred] it is Adrava, Run hither!
with a Shudra it is Adrava, Run hither 1”

114

AVHAT CASTE IS.

extended, and they formed a settled state of society ainonir
the affluents of the Yamuna and Ganges, they were de-
graded to the humiliating and painful position which they
occupy in Maim.* There is no mention of any Sankara,
or Mixed, Castes in the Vedas.

(7.) In the time of the Chhandas of the Vedas, the
idea of the god Brahma, from whose liead and arms and
thighs and feet the four original castes of the Hindus are
held to liave been deriyed, was neither deyeloped nor
Ibrmed. Brahma, as a member of the Hindu Tdad,
and as the parent of the races of man, is no god Avhat-
eyer of the Vedas. Brahma, in the neuter gender, in the
AYdic language, as already mentioned, means prayer ;
and Brahma, in the masculine, means “ he-of-prayer.”
Agni, the god of fire and sacrifice, is the Brahma, the god
of prayer, and the Vrihaspati, Brihaspati, or Brahmanas-
pati, the lord of prayer, throughout tlie Rig- Veda. f
Thougli he is called Vishjjati, Vishdmpati, and Mana-
saspati, the lord of men ; Vaishvanara, the soyereign of
all beings ; and Jdtaveclhas and Vedhas Shashvata, the
inspector of men and the constant inspector, as practically
useful to man in his person and social life, and as the
constant consumer of sacrifice and offerings, he is also
spoken of as “ the Son of Heayen and Earth,” as well as
their parent, and was both a deriyative god and a Creator,
Avhen the early Suktas were composed. J A desire to haye
a separate god for prayer, besides the gods of material
nature and energy the ancient deities of the Vedas, begins

* See above, pp. 46-50.

f Dr. Eoth thinks that all the pati gods are the result of reflec-
tion and of later invention.

1 Rig- Veda, 3rd. Asht. 1st. adh. s. 19.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE GOD BRAHMA’.

115

to be a])pareiit in these writings as they advance ; and for
this god, Agni, in his function of Brahma, was selected.
The Brahmans ultimately recognized Brahma as a distinc-
tive metaphysical god, and introduced him to public notice;
but, however much they themselves contemplated him,
they did not succeed in thoroughly establishing his wor-
ship among the Indian people. It is well known that
there is only a single temple dedicated to his honour in the
whole of India. To account for his unpopularity, it is
feigned, in tlie later Shastras, that he is labouring under
a curse from the god Shiva, who even went so far as to
cut off one of his heads for his immorality !f Brahma
(the divine thing Brahma or Soul) is an invention of the
ideal Vedanta, a system of Pantheism long posterior to
the Vedas, and really designed to supersede them under
the assumed name of the “Aim” or “ End” of the VMas.J

(8.) The doctrine, or incident, or system, of ceremonial
defilement by touch, or by eating or drinking, — by whicli
the existence ofCaste is particularly marked in the present
social and religious life of the Hindus, — is not recognized
in the V edas in a single instance. It is impossible that it

* Tliis is at the Pokhar (FusliJcara) lake near Ajmer. Tod’s Raja-
sthan, vol. i. p. 774. Even this temple, I found when visiting it, to
be under the care of devotees, and not that of the regular priesthood.

f Author’s First Exposure of Hinduism, p. 42. In the 3rd aslit.
8th adh. and 10th varg. of the Rig-Veda, Agni is spoken of as having
NRr four horns. These Sayana erroneously makes the four
Vedas, the collection of which did not exist when the Siiktas were
composed, and Mahidhara, the four officiating priests (the Ilotri, Udga-
tri, Adhvaryu, and Brahma) ; but M. Langlois, with much probability,
makes them the four sides of Agni’s eastern fire-pit, in which the myth
of Brahma’s four faces may have originated.

\ This is the etymological meaning of Vedanta, from Veda and auta.

116

AVHAT CASTE IS.

should uot, in some form or other, have been alluded to in
these productions, had it existed when they were formed.

Caste, in the sense in which it exists in the present day,
we are more and more persuaded, was altogether unknown
among the ancient A ryas, though doubtless, like other
consociated peoples, they had varieties of rank and order
and occupation in them community. A Panchalshiti,
and panchajana (pentad) are occasionally mentioned in the
Vedas*. Sayana A'charya says these expressions refer to the
four varnas (colours or castes) and the Nishadas treated as
outcasts, or to the Gaudharvas, Pitris, Devas, Asm-as, and
Raksliasas, as explained in the Nhukta. But Professor
Lassen properly observes that neither of these explana-
tions is admissible,! Kshiti, as he remarks, is applied in
the Veda to men in general and charshani, its s}iionym,
is derived from 7-ish to plow. The Nishadas (etymologi-
cally the “ settled” Aborigines, but applied to races distinct
from the Aryan) were then unknown. Even when they
came into notice, they remained exterior to the Aryan
state. Jana signifies a person ; panchajani, in times
later than the Veda, an assembly of five men; and pancha-
janina, a chief of five men. “ It is probable,” Lassen
adds, “ that the oldest social communities consisted only
of five families.” That Panchakshiti and panchajana
signify an aggregate of fi^ e men, is evident ; but what the
members of the aggregation were, it is now almost impos-
sible to declare with certainty. Megasthenes .speaks of
various municipal and mihtary Pentads as existing among
the Indians in his day. f Many aggregations of five per-
* R. V. iv. 2. 5.

Indische Altherthumskunde, vol. i. p. 796.

:j: Megasthenes in Coiy’s Ancient Fragments, p. 220, et. seq.

ORIGIN OF CASTE -THE PANCHAKSIIITI. 117

sons or parties are at present recognized by the Hindus.*

In virtue of the remarks which we have now made,
and proofs and illustrations which we have now brought
forward, we hold that Caste in the ancient Vedic times
was no systematic institution of the A'ryas. The opinion
-of Dr. Max Muller, the editor of the Rig-VMa and
the most competent judge in the case, is entirely in
accordance with that which we have ventured to express.
In a Review of Muir’s Texts in the London Times, he
has the following passage : — “ Does Caste, as we find it
in Maiiu and at the present day, form part of the reli-
o’ious teaching: of the Vedas I We answer with a decided
‘No.’ There is no authority whatever in the Veda for
the complicated system of castes, no authority for the
offensive privileges claimed by the Brahmans ; no
authority for the degraded position of the Shudras.
There is no law to prohibit the different classes of the
people from living together ; from eating and drinking-
together •, no law to prohibit the marriage of people
belonging to different castes ; no law to brand the
offspring of such marriages with an indelible stigma.
All that is found in the Veda, at least in the most anci-
ent portion of it — the Hymns — is a verse, in which it is
said that the four castes, the priest, the warrior, the
husbandman, and the serf, sprung all alike from
Brahma. Europeans are able to show that eveir this
verse is of later origin than the great mass of the
IIymns.”f

* See Molesworth’s Maratlii Dictionary under the compound, ofT'^T.
The .4Vya rarwa (or colour) is spoken of as a unity in Rig-Veda,
3rd asht. 2. 5. 9.

t The Times, 10th April 1858.

il8

WIIAT CASTE IS.

The verse here referred to by Dr. Miiller was first
brought to notice by Colebrooke. It occurs in the
Piiruslia Stilia, or Hymn of the Primeval Male, trans-
lated by him in his Essay cn the Religious Ceremonies
of the Hindus.* It has been quoted and transla;ed by
Burnouf, in his introduction to his translation of the
Bhagavata Puriinaf ; and lately it has been literally
and correctly rendered by Dr. John Muir, whose version
we here introduce, with the text subjoined, that a pro-
per estimate of its bearings on the subject immediately
before us ma}’^ be formed.

“ Purusha has a thousand heads, a thousand eyes , a thousand feet.
Everywhere pervading the earth, he overpassed a space often fingers.
2. Purusha alone is this whole [universe], which has been, and is
to be. He is the lord of immortality, that which expands by nutri-
ment. (?) 3. So great is his glory ; and Purusha is gx-eater than

this. All ci-eatures make a fourth of him ; three-fourths of him (are)
immortality in the sky. 4, Pui'usha with these three parts monnted
upwards ; a fourth of him was again produced here. He then diffused
himself everywhere among things animate and inanimate. 5. From
him spi-ang Viraj ; over Vii'aj xvas Purusha : being born he extended
himself, and (produced) the earth and corpoi’eal forms. G. When
the gods offered xip Purusha in sacrifice, the spring was its clarified
buttei’, summer its wood, and autumn the offering. 7. This victim,
Purusha, boim primevally, they immolated on the sacrificial gi-ass ;
with him as their oblation the gods, Sadhyas, and Rishis sacrificed.
8. From that universal oblation were produced cixrds and claidfied
butter. He produced the animals of which Vdyu is the deity, both
wild and tame. 9. From that universal sacrifice were produced
hymns called rich and sdman, the meti’esand yryas. 10. Fi’om that
were produced horses and all animals with two rows of teeth, cows^
goats, and sheep. 11. When they formed (or offei-ed up) Purusha
into how many parts did they divide him? What was his mouth ?

* Asiatic Researches, vol. vii. p. 251 and i\Iis. Essays 1 p. 167-8.

■f Burnoufs B. P. i. cxxiii.

ORIGIN OF CASTE-TIIE PURUSIIASUKTA.

119

hat were his arms ? What were called his thighs and feet ? 12.

The Brahman was his moulh ; the Bdjanya was made his arms ; that
which was the Vaishja was his thighs ; the Shudra sprang from his
feet. 13. The moon was produced from his mind (Manas) ; the sun
from his eye ; Indra and Agni from his mouth ; and Vayu from his
bi’eath. 14. From his navel came the atmosphere ; from his head
the sky ; from his feet the earth, from his ear the four quarters : so they
formed the worlds. 15. When the gods in performing their sacrifice
bound Purusha as their victim, there were seven trenches (round the
altar), and there were made thrice seven pieces of fuel. 16. With
sacrifice the Gods worshipped the sacrifice : these were the first rites.
These great beings attained to the heaven where the gods, the ancient
Sadhyas, reside.”*

'O G\ NJ

IIVII3^ ffTT If? ^4 !TW ?T?-|r^rprFrfr>r IKII

3i4?TiTrfJTrd4f 1 'TTfr^T vrfifR RqTTstiriTT T^rii

^ ®s c •

II ^ II ^1151^1^-

51^ 3Tf)T II a II gwiT nTr^RPid’ rlTRr str 1 eurgr
q-^WR ipfr 50 II II I

arrw ?frR sir

arJisiT ^irwr || ii ^i^ar Jrarg 'iq'TRq 1 q^f

*» > 'O tf C tts

arpcRi^ qriqRT II ^ ii fi^itr rrir

STRC I SIRC ^TfRRlTRRg- || ^ || FfRITRI 31511#

Rl »T!irR: I Rlflf 5IRC HRliRRl aisriTq; || I^ol|
qiRRT sqqrRqR | JR RfiT^q # fl| ^IR^ TlTf g-#R || H
JRJFR# qrr riRR: fd: q? q?T: q^lRl 3T5TRq ||A:^||

RXUrn^# STR^iflRR apsTRH | JRR ffRllflR TflRlf qrjFSTRirllVitll
Roqr JTRif 3TfTrc3j ^r#r ?R:RRq#ir | qi:iir jrrrrl-srRr^riT ^TNiRfqiRqi-
R^^ll Vv II qRTRq: RT: RRR: fl^l: | 5-fR7 W

flRRl aifiTR q|T || || qRR qn iTRqq RHIIR Wlfi-

-qr^iR I niftiR: ?irit q^qq ^nwi: RRqqi: || \^ II

* The text we take from the MS. of the B. B. R. A. S., which on comparison we find,
except in two letters, agrees with that of Burtouf, which was made from the same
original cop)', that of Colonel Shortrede,

120

WHAT CASTE IS.

Dr. Muller lias lately well illustrated liis^ own remark^
lliat European critics are able to show that tins passage
of the Vedas is of “ later origin than the great mass of
the hymns.” In his History of Sanskrit Literature he
thus writes respecting it : — “ There can be little doubt
that it is modern both in its character and in its diction.
It is full of allusions to the sacrificial ceremonials, it uses
technical philosophical terms, it mentions the three sea-
sons in the order of Vasanta, spring, Gilshma, summer,
and Sharad, autumn, it contains the only passage in the
Rig-Veda where the four castes are enumerated. The
evidence of language for the modern date of this composi-
tion is equally strong. Grishma, for instance, the name
of the hot season, does not occur in any other hymn of
the Rig- Veda ; and Vasanta also, the name of spring,
does not belong to the earliest vocabulary of the Vedic
poets. It occurs but once more in the Rig- Veda (mand.
161.M.”) Dr. Muller brmgs down this hymn to the time
of making the final collection of the Rig- Veda Sauhita,
“ the work of the Mantra period,” to which he gives the
date of 1000-800 before Christ. He does not carry it
lower, because of allusions to it in the Brahmanas, and
because it has found a place in the collections of the Va-
jaseyins and Atharvans.* That it cannot be carried
higher than this is obvious, not only from the considera-
tions above referred to, but from the distinction (recognized
by it) in the Vedic “hymns called the RicIi,andSdman, the
metres (Chhandas) , and the Yajus," which seems to indi-
cate the existence of an artificial division at the time it
originated of the Vedic material, at least for conventional
saciificial pimposes.

* Muller's Hist. Sans. Lit, p. 572.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE PURUSIIA SUKTA. 121

111 regard to the meaning of tlie rurii.dia Sukta we
adliere to the jiidgmeiit wliich we liave elsewhere expressed
upon it. “ d'he support wliich even it gives to the system
of caste is of a very limited character. The passage in it
which approximates the subject is the following ‘ When
they produced Piirusha [perhaps eipiivalent to ‘ when
ruriisha Avas produced’] into Iioav many portions did they
separate him ? What was his mouth ? What were his
arms ? What were pronounced his thighs and feet ? The
Brahman was his mouth ; the Rajanya (prince) was made
his arms ; the Vaishya was his thighs ; and the Shudra
sprang from his feet.’ This occurs in a composition which
is both metaphysical and figurative ; and it prohahly ex-
presses an idea originally of this character : — The Brah-
man, as the expositor of the will of God, conceived of as
an enomious male, and the recipient of the gifts and
offerings made to the divinities, was the mouth of this
male ; the Rdjamja, the prince or warrior, the iiistruinent
of offence and defence, was the arms of this male ; the
Vaishya, as the cultivator of the soil, and the original
possessor of its Avealth, Avas the thighs of this male ; and
the Shudra, or slave, as the loAvest member of the body
social, Avas the feet of this male. All this is clearly meta-
physical and metaphorical, though afterwards it Avas vieAved
as historical and dogmatic.”* For the system of caste, it
is noAv obvious, there is no legitimate Avarraut in the great
hymn collection of the Rig-Veda.

* India Three Thousand Years Ago, pp. 44-45.

Dr. TMnir, illusti-ating the Purusha Sukta, properly says : “ It is
only the Shudi-a who is here said to have sprung from the feet of
Purusha. In a hymn of this allegorical and mystical character, it
cannot be assumed that the writer intended to represent it as a

122

WHAT CASTE IS.

Nor IS sudi coimteiiance of Caste to he fomid in any of
die olden portions of die other Vt^las, wliicli are all taken
from what is properly denominated hy Dr. Midler the “one
genuine collection, the so-called Rig-Veda, or the Veda
of praise.”*

The first of these derivatiyc Vedas is the Sdrna, the
whole of whose texts, with few exceptions, as already hint-
ed, liaye been actually found in the Rik, cspeciall}^ in the
eighth and ninth mandals.f It is not to he expected, con-
secpiently, that much light should he cast hy it individually
on the'social state of the ancient ATyas, eyen though it
.should ho admitted, as thought hy Dr. Muller, that the time
of its construction falls n-ithin that of the Rrahmanas, —
hetween 800 — 600 years before Christ. We notice a few
things which have struck our attention when going over it
in connexion with the subject before us.

dlie god Brahma is distinguished in one place both from
Agni, the god of fire, and Vrihaspati, the lord of prayer,

A pre-eminence among the gods is in one other place at least

histoiical fact, that the four different classes sprang from different
parts of Purusha’s body ; any more than that he desired to assert,
as literally true, what he has stated in verses 13 and 14 ; that ‘ the
moon was produced from his mind, the sun from his eye, Indra and
Agni from his niOMt/j, and Vayu from his tirent//,’ &c. Ac. &c. In flict
the Yajur Veda alleges that Vayu came forth from his car; and
so contradicts the Pig-Veda.” Texts i. 10.

* lleview in Times, 10th April, 1858.

I As the Sama does not make quotations from the last hj-mns of the
Rik, it has been inferred by Weber and others that its pieces had been
arranged before the completion of the Rig-Veda collection ; but Dr.
hliiller (Anc. Sans. Lit. p. 427.) attributes both its collection and that
of the Rig-Veda to the Brahinana period. See Muir’s Texts, ii. 203.

J Benfey’s Text of Sdma Veda, p. 10.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN SAMA VEDA.

123

nscribed to him, no doubt because he is viewed as the lord
of sacrifice* lu the jiassag-e last referred to, the JUs/ii is
mcutioiied as the marked one among the Vipras, or iiitel-
ligcut ; while in another the Vipra is denominated the in_
strumcutalitv, or agent, of tlie sacrifice,! thus intimaling
that the designation was being applied distinctive!}^ to an
oiliciating priest. Several passages in the Sama in which
the word lirahma, used as a human conductor of prayer or
sacrifice, are taken from the Rik, need not be here noticed,
'I'lie human Brahma is spoken of, in one place, as the master
of (holy) seasons, and the Brahmans as praising Indra
in hvmns,f The designation Brahma seems from this
to have been about this time coming into use as a generic

* Tliis is in a curious address to the sacred Soma, the genius of
ardent spirits : —

fi'riT: ITT UdtTr STRTr friT ^IRTi I

sTfir ^'ir^Tf TTTi : 37ffTrur%R!TRtiTfffr sTiirq-’r |

unr: !!

.Sama Veda, 2nd part, hi. 3, Stevenson’s Text jn 77, Benfey’s, 8-t.

Soma is pure, the generator of intellect, the generator of the heavens,
the generator of fire, the generator of the sun, the generator of
Indra, and the generator of the earth, the generator of Vishnu — Soma,
when sounding it goes to its holy place, (is) Brahnni among the gods,
the high-one among the poets, the Bishi among the Vipras, the
hawk among the raptores, the bufl'aloe among horned animals
and the sword among cleavers.

i rifr 75TFT ur-TT : sdma, ii. G. (Benfcy, p. I2G.)

X wur T rsTr u't ii

3'3Tr'T tsf Rfifffr f?TTr S' il

Siima Veda, part 1st, v. G. 2. Stevenson’s Text p. 38, Benfey’s,
P. 46. Compare fthidhava’s Comment, sub. loc.

124

WHAT CASTE IS.

term for a priest. Nothing of a peculiar character occurs
ill the Sama applying either to the Raja or the Vhha.

The second of the derivative Vedas, the Yajus or Yajur,
as already mentioned, exists in two forms, the Black
and the White.* They are partly in prose and partly
in verse, the poetical portion being generally that which
is taken from the Rik, Exclusive of their texts from the
Rik, they appear, in their liturgical directions especially,
very like the Brahraanas,to the era of which, as collections,
they belong. They indicate the assumption of Brahmani-
cal pre-eminence, but in the face of opposition from
certain portions of the Indian commiinit3\

In the Black Yajur Veda, the Brahma, and Kshatra are,
(with the Sujiraja (the good population), and Rcnjasposha
supporting wealth), recognized as distinct interests, in
prayers several times used.f The predominance of the
Brahman in sacrifice is set forth throughout this collec-
tion, at least of the portions of it which have been print-
ed. Social distinctions are recognized in it, as those of
the Brahma ; the Rajanya, prince ; the. Mahisju, the
wife of an anointed king ; the Parivrikti, according to
the commentator Madhava “the unloved wife of a king”
(concubine.^); the Senani, general; theNM^u, charioteer;
the Grdmnni, villager; the Kshutta,i\ie. “guardian of the
females ; the Sangrahitd, the treasurer ; the Bhdgaduyha,

* See above, p. 74. In the text of the White Yajur V(5da, ably
edited by Dr. Weber of Berlin, there are 4045 lines. Dr. W. gives
us also the text of the commentary of iMahidhara, the Shatapatha
Bnilimana, and the Shrauta Sutras of Katyayan, and Extracts from
the Commentaries of Karka and Yajnikadeva.

j Taittirlya Sanhita of Y. V. i. 3. I ; I. 9. G. (Roer and Cowell’s
ed. vol. i. pp. 445, 492.)

ORIGIN OF CASTE-NOTICES IN YAJUR \T:DA. 125

the collector (of the king's portion, said by the commen-
tator to be the sixth part) ; the Akshdvapa, the player at
dice.* But these are probably principally designations of
parties in public office. The commentator speaks of
tliem as the recognized supporters of the kingdom.f An
appropriation of the gods is thus made in recognition of
certain orders of the community. “ Brihaspati is the god
of speech ; Indra, of chiefs; Mitra, of the truthful ; Va-
rum of the religious”; and “ Soma of us the Brahmans.
Brahmans and Kshatriyas are viewed as distinct, in con-
nexion with the colour of the beasts used in a certain
sacrifice. §

In the White Yajur Veda the information bearing on
our subject is such as the following: —

In this Veda the Brahma and Kshatra are coupled
together in the worship of Agni, and in other connexions
as in the Black Yajur Veda.|l The Brahman is men-
tioned as an object of reverence with ancestors and
rishis,!! Indra (the thunderer) is declared to be the hold
and support of the Kshatra,** while he is also set forth
as the god of the Kshatra and the princedom. Soma
(so often addressed in sacrifice) is declared to be the
god of the Brdhmans,-\-\ as in a passage from the Schna
IVda already referred to. The different functions in
the community of the Brahman and Kshatra are thus in-
directl}’^ recognized. Salutations are given to the Kshe-
proprietor of fields ; to the Suta, bard or chario-

* Taittariya Sanluta, i. 8. 9. % S. Y. V. i. 6. 46.

t Roer & Cowell’s Ed. vol. ii. p. 105. ** S. Y. V. 1. 9. 8.

X Taitt. S. of Y. V.; 8. 10. ft Slmkla Yajur Yeda 1. 9. 19-

§ Taittin'ja Sanliita of Y. V. ii. 1. 2.

II Slmkla Yajur- Veda, i. 1. 18 ; i. 5. 26.

126

WHAT CASTE IS.

tcer; to the Taskarapati, probably master of a subjugated
tribe to the. K^(llunchapat^, “ iubabiting- mountainous
regions” ; to the bearers of bows and arrows ; to the
Skvapati, or master of bounds ; to tlie Vratapati, “ the
master of a multitude to the <S'e??aand Seiuhii, to the
army and the leader of the army ; to the Sangrihita,
treasurer ; to the Takslm, carpenter, and Rathakara,
the coacbmaber ; to the Kulala, the potter, and Karmara,
the worber in the coarser metals ; to the Nishdda, aborigi-
nal settlei’jj' and to other parties recognized as classesin the
commuuity.J The Brahman is spoben of as endowed
with the bnowledge of Brahma {hvalimavarcha&i) and
the Hajanya, as possessed of bravery {sh{nxi).\

Even more distinctive notices than these of the varied
and numerous classes of Indian society occur in this
White Yajur AYda. They are found in connexion Avitli
the most mysterious rite of Hinduism, that of the Punisha-
mcdlia, or sacrifice of Purusha, nominally the god
Prajapati. A whole /\dhaya, or section is devoted to
them, II in wdiich the parties are brought forward, or con-
secrated, as typical representatives of the multitudinous
objects recognized in the Purushamedha, A few of these
parties are mentioned, also, in the Shatapatha Brahmana

* In Wilson’s Sans. Diet. Taskara is rendered by “ thief, robber.”
hlaludliara in his commentary on tlie Sluikla Yajur Veda attaches a
similar meaning to tlie word. Weber’s ed. i. p. 497.

j" hlalndhara views the Nishadas as mountain Bhillas, caters of
llesh. Weber’s Text. i. p. 500. The word Nishada, as shown by
Lassen, means the settled.

^ Shukla Yajur Veda, i. 16. 18-26.

§ Shukla Yajur-Veda, ii. 22. 20. (Weber’s ed. p. 703.)

II Shukla Yajur-Veda, adh. 30. (Weber’s ed. i. p. 811-848.)

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE FURUSIIA MEDIIA.

127

of tlie Yajur V eda;* and with variations they all occur in
the Taittiriya Briihinana of the Black Yaj nr Veda,f in a
passage which, as far as I know, has not yet attracted
the attention of Europeans.

The importance of the Adhyaya of the White Yajnr-
Veda, now mentioned, in the illustration of ancient Indian
society requires its quotation in full.

1 XBrahmani

.. Brahmanam,

... for the Brahma

. a Brahman.

2 Kshatrtiya

.. Rdjanyam,

... for the Kshatra, ..

. a Prince.

3 Marudbliyo

Vaishyam,

... for Tillage,

a Vaishya.

4 Tapasi

Shudram,

... for Toil,

a Shudra

5 Tamasi

.. Taskaram,

... for Darkness,

a Thief.

C Nurakdya

.. Virhanam,

... for Hellishness, ...

a Murderer.

7 Papmani

KUbam,

... for Sin,

a Eunuch.

8 A'krayuya

.. Ayogum,

... for Distress (?) ...

an Ayogava.

9 Kiimdya,

.. Pushchaliim,

... for Lust,

a B'hore.

10 Atiknishtdya ..

. Mdgadham,

.. for great-Mourning

a Mdgadhtt.

11 Nrittaya

.. Slitam,

... for Dancing,

a Siita.

12 Gltdya

.. Skaili'tsham,

... for Singing,

an Actor.

13 Dharmdya

.. Sabhdcharam,

... for Duty (or Reli-
gion)

an Attendant-on-the-
Synagogue.

14 Xarhhthdyai .

.. Bhhnalam,

... for Bad-luck,

a Frightful-person.

15 Xarmdya

.. Ribham,

... for Amusement, ...

an Orator.

IG Ilasdya

.. Kdrim,

... for Laughter,

an Artificer.

17 Ananddya

.. Sirishakham,

... for Joy,

a Lover-of-xeoinen.

18 Pramade

.. Kumdriputram,

... for Pleasure,

a Son-of-an-unmar-
ried-girl

19 Midhdyai

,. Rathakdram,

... for Intelligence, ...

a Chariot-maker.

20 Dhdirydya

.. Takshdnam,

... for Firmness,

a Carpenter.

21 Tapasi^

. Kauldlani,

... for Labour,

a Potter.

22 Maydyai

. Kanndram,

... for Jugglery,

a Blacksmith.

23 Riipdya

. Manikdram,

.. for Beauty,

a Jeiceller.

21 Shubhi

.. Vapam,

... for Auspiciousness,

a So leer.

25 Sharavydya

.. Ishukdram,

... for Shooting,

a Maker-of-arroies

23 Ilityai

.. Dhamishkdram, .

... for Armour,

a Maker-of-bows.

* Aclhaya, xiii.

f Taittriiya Bralimana of the Krishna Yajur-Vecla, iii. fol. 40-42
of Author’s MS.

t The numbers here siren are not in the Viida.

5 U'e hare had tapasi already (in No. 4). The Taittiriya Urdhuiana has here Shram&ya
meaning also “ for labour.”

128

WHAT CASTE IS.

27 Karmwte

Jydkdram,

for Activity,

a Maker-qf-bow-
sirhigs.

28 Dishtuya

Rajusarjatn,

for Fortune,

a Ropemaker.

29 Mrityave

Mrigayum,

for Death,

a Huntsman.

GO Antakdya

Svaninam,

for the Agent-of-
death,

' a Dognian.

31 Nadibhyah

. Paunjishtam,

for Rivers,

a Punjishta.*

32 Rikshikubhyo\

Naishddam,

for a Watchman, ...

a Desemdant-of-a-
R'ishdda.

33 Furushavyd-
ghrdya

Durmadani,

for Haughtiness, ...

a Drunkard.

34 Gandharvdpsa-
robhyo

Vrdtyam,

, for the Gandharvas
and Apsaras,

a Vrdtya.

35 Frayugbhyah ...

Pnmattam,

for the Abstracted,

a Madman.

36 Sa)padevaja?it-
bhyo

Apratipadam,

for Serpents and
Devajauas

an Ignorant.

37 Ayebhyah

Kitavam,

for Luck,

a Dice-player.

38 Iryatdya

Akitava/n,

for the Departed, ...

a Xon-jdayer-at-dice.

39 Pishachibhyah.,

. Bidalakdrim,

for Pishachas,

afemale-Basket-

maker.

40 Tdtiidhdndbhyah Kantakikdrim

for the Y atudhanas, J

; a Pinmakcr.

4l Sandhaye

Jdram,

for Junction,

a Paramour.

42 Gdhaya

. Upapatim,

for the House,

. a Concubine

43 Artyai

. Farivittam,

. for Affliction,

. an Unmarried-clde?'-
brother.^

44 Nirrityai

. Parivividdnam,

. for Misfortune, ...

a Married-elder-
brother.

45 2\ishkrityai

. Pt'shaskdrim,

. for Craft,

, an Actress.

46 Samjndndya ..

. Stnarakdrim,

. for Gesture,

. an Amorous-U'oman.

47 Prakdntodydya

. Vpasadam,

. for Love,

a Comi)anion.

48 Bald y a

. Vpaddin,

. for Strength,

an Observer.

49 I'arndya

. Amtrudham,

for Varna (Descent)

a Follower ( or Page ).

50 Vtsddebhyah ..

. Kubjam,

for the Applying-
of Unguents,

a Hunchback.

51 Pramude

. Vdmanam,

. for Amusement. ...

a Dicarf.

52 Dwdrbhyah

. Srdmam,

. for Doors,

a Blear-eyed-person.

53 Svapndya

. Andham,

. for Dreaming,

a Blind-person.

54 Adharmdya

. Badhiram,

. for Irreligion,

a Dea f-person.

55 Pavitrdya ...

BhUhajam,

for Purification, ...

a Physician.

56 Prajndndya ...

Xakshatradarsham

for Philosophy,

, an Astronomer.

• Mabi'dliara, the Commentator, makes this a Slayer-of-hirds, and the Loicest-horn, the
Puliasa.

t The coupling of the Watchman witli the class of the Nishdda, suggests tlie idea tliat the
svord Rakshasa may have come into use from the aboriginal tribes havuig leen employed as
Watchmen. See above, p. 99.

t The name TStudhdna is applied to magicians, barbarians, and demons.

§ “ The younger being unmarried.” 3Iahfdhara.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE PURUSIIA MEDHA. 129

57 Ashikshdyai ...

. Prashninam,

.. for Non-insliuction

, a Catechizer.

53 Upashikshdya ..

. Abhi prashninam,.

.. for Elementary-

an Interrogator.

59 Marydddyai ...

Prashnativdkam,-

instruction,

.. for B )undaries, ...

a Revealcr-of- Omens.

60 Armebhyo

Hastipam,

.. for Conveyances, ...

an Elephant-keeper.

61 Javdya

Ashvapam,

.. for Running,

a Horse-keeper.

62 Pushfai

Gopdlam,

.. for Nourisliraent, ...

a Coiekeepcr.

6 5 Virydya

. Axipdlam,

. for Heroism,

a Shepherd.

64 Tdjasi

Ajapdlam,

.. for Bravery,

a Goatherd.

65 Irdyai

Kindshan,

.. for the Earth,

a Cultivator.

66 Kildldya

Surdkdram,

,. for Water,

a Dealer-in-Spirils.

6/ Bhadrdya

Grihapani,

.. for Wellbeing,

a Housekeeper

63 Shreyase

fiUadham,

.. for Prosperity, ...

a Holder-of- Wealth.

69 A' dhyakshdya...

AniikshatCdra.'n, ..

. for Oversight,

a Footman.

70 Bhdyai

Ddrvdhdrani,

,. for Combustion, ...

a Timber-bringcr.

71 Prabhdya

Agnedham,

,. for Light,

a Fire-kindler.

72 BradJmasya-

Abhishtktdram, ..

. for the Region of <m Anolnier.

vishtapdya
7 5 VarshUhthdya-

Pariveshtdrain,

the Sun,

. for Supreme Para-

■ a Distributor-pf-

Ndkaya,

7't Divalokdya

Peshildram,

dise,

. for the Ahode-of-

food-to-guests.
a Maker-of-Jigures.

^5 Maiiuskyalokdya Prakaritdram,

the Gods,

.. for the abode of Men a Moulder.

76 Sarviibhyolokd-

Vpasektdram,

.. for the Universe, ...

a Sprinkler.

bhyah

77 Avarityaibadhd-

■ Vpamanihitdram .

.. for the De-truc ion-

a Churner.

73 yiedhdya vdsah

Palpulim,

of-Adversity,
. for Sacrifice,

a Washer-of -clothes.

79 Prakdmdya

Rajayitrim,

. for Eagerness.

a I)yer-of-clothes.

80 Bitaye

Stenahridayatn ...

, for Prosperity,

a Thievish-hearted-

81 Vairhatydya ...

Pishunam,

. for Malicious-Mur-
der,

. for Loneliness,

person.
a Backbiti.r.

82 Viviktyai

Kshattdram

a Kshatta CLictor)

£3 Aupjdristfdya...

Anukshattdram, ..

. for Supervision, ...

a Sub-Lictor.

84 Baldya

Anucharam,

. for Strength,

a Follotcer.

35 Bhumne

Parishkandam,

. for Water,

a Climber.

86 Priydya

Priyavddinam,

. for Love,

a Sweet-speaker.

87 Arishlyd

Asvasddam,

. for Fortune (or Mis-

a Horseman.

88 Swargdyalokdya Bhdgadugham,

fortune),

. for Heaven,

a Bhdgadugha.'

89 Manyave

Ayastdpam,

. for Anger,

a Healer-of-iron (a

90 Krodhdya

i^isaram,

. for Anger,

BlacksmitM)
a Ferryman.

91 Yogdya

Yoktdram,

. for Junction,

a Joiner.

92 Shokdya

Abhisartdrain,

. for Grief,

a Waiter.

* A Collector of the prince's revenue Ser before, j', l‘i4.

130

WHAT CASTE IS.

93 Kshemdya

94 Uthulanikitle

bhyah

95 Vapushe
93 Shildya

97 IKirrityai

98 Yamdya
93 Yamdya

109 Atharvabhyo ...

101 Samvatsardya

102 Parivatsardya

103 Iddvatsardya...

104 Idvatsardya ...

Vimoktdram,

Strishthmam,

Mdmiskritam,

Anjanikdrim,

Koshakdrim,

Asurn,

Yamasum,

Avatokdm,

Parydyinim,

Avijdtdm,

Atitvarim,

A tishkadvarim,

105 Vatsardya ... Vijarjardm,

106 Samvatsardya. Palihnim,

107 Ribhubkyo ... AJinsandham,

108 Sddhyebhyah... Charmamaam,

109 Sarobhyo ... Dhaivaram,

110 Upasthdvard- Ddsham,

bhyo

111 Vaishantd- Baindam,

bhyo

112 Nadvaldbhyah. Shaushkalam,

113 Pdrdya ... Margdrdm,

114 Av&rayd ... Kaivartam,

115 Tirthebhyah^... A'ndam,

... for Hapiness,

... for Arrival and Non-
arrival,

... for a Handsome
Body,

... for Beauty,

... for Misfortune, ...

... for Yama,*

... for Yama,

... for a Priest,

... for a complete-year,

... for the Past-Year,

... for the Present-
Y'rar,

... for a Prosperous-
Year,

... for the Year (un-
defined.)

... for Time,

... for tlieRibhus,

... for the Sadhas,

... for Waters,

... for Mountains,

... for Pools,

... forFens,

... for the Opposite
Bank of a River,
... for the Near Bank
of a River,

... for Ferries,

a Liberator.
a Man-of-worth.

a Proved-man.

an Anoint er-of-the-
eyes.

a Maker -of-sheaths
for swords.
a Barren-woman.
a Bcarer-of-lxcins.^
a Woman-without-
offspring.

a Woman-skilled-in-
counting.

a Woman-who-has-
not-borne-a-child.
an Unchaste-woman.

a Woman-in-hor-
courses.
an Old-icoman.

a White-haired- IFo-
man.

a Skindresser.
a Dealer-in-skins.
a Man-gf-the-fisher-
class.

a Ddsha ( Dasyu ).

One-of-the-Binda-
class ( a Hunter). J
a Fishdealer.
a Deer-killer.

a Kaivartta ( Fisher-
man ).
an Anda.

• The god of the other world.

t In the Taittirfya Brdhmana, we have Tamyai, the dative feminine, for Yamdya of the Shnkla
Yajur-Vdda text. This reading, which refers the personage represented to Yami, the sister, or
wife of Yatna, seems the more appropriate.

t The commentator conples the Binda or Vinda with the Nishdda, possibly with reference to
the Vindhya mountains.

§ The word tirtba, here used as a ferry, seems to have got into use from the Brahmanic
missionaries having chosen the ferries of rivers as their early stations.

OKIGIN OF CASTE-THE PUKUSHA MEDHA. 131

110 Vishamebhyo Maindlam,

11/ Svanebhyah ... Parnaham,

118 Giihdbhyah ... Kir&tam,

119 Sdnubhyo ... Jambhakam,

... for Precipices, ... One-of-the Mindla-
class.

... for Eclioes, ... a Parnaka (Vender
of leaves ).

... for Caves, ... a Kirdta.

... for Mountain Pla- a Jambhaka {Sa-
teaus, vage ).

120 Parvatibhyah

12 1 Bibhatsdyai ...

122 Varndya

123 Tuldyai

124 Pashchddo-

shdya

125 Vishvebhyobhu-

tebhyah

123 BhUtyai
127 Abhiityai

125 A'rtyai

123 Vridhyai

130 Shanshardya ...

Kimpiirusham,

Paidkasam,

Hiranyahdram.

Vdnijam,

Gldvinam,

Sidhmalam,

Jdgaranam,

Svapanam,

Janavddinam,

Apagalbham,

Prachidam,

for (High) Moun-
tains,

for Disgust,

for the Precious
Metal,

for Weighing,

a Kimpitrusha.

a Person of the Pal-
kasa tribe.
a Goldsmith.

131 Akshardjdya ... Kitavam,

132 Kritdya ... Adinavadarsham

1)3 Tretdyai ... Kalpinam,

134 Dvdpardya ... Adhikalpinam,

135 A'skanddya ... Sabhdsthdnum,

133 Mrityavi
13/ Antakdya

... Govyachham,
... Goghdtam,

133 Dnshkritdya ... Charakdchdryan

a Person of the Vdni
class (a Vender).

.. for the “ Posterior- a Mourner.
fault,”

.. for the Vishve-Bhu- a Leper.
tas ( all-the-De-
mons),

.. for Prosperity, ... a Watcher.

.. for Adversity, for a Drowning man.
Non-Existences),

.. for Sickness. ... a Popular-Speaker.

.. for Old-age, ... an Infirm-person.

.. for the Commence- a Foreslasher.
ment-of-a-Con-
test,

... for the Chief-of-the- a Gambler.

Dice,

for the Krita (the an hispector-of-
first Yuga, that of faults.

deeds),

.. for theTreta (Yuga), a Trickster.

.. for the Dvdpar Yuga, an Arch-trickster.

... for the A'skanda a Lounger-in-meet-
(the Evil Yuga,) ings.*

... for Death, ... z.-a Attendant-on-cows

... fur the Agent-of- a Cow-killer.

Death,

for Wickedness, ... a Charakdchdrya.^

* This is the first notice in the Indian literature of the “ Four Ages” of the wrrld. The last
of them, here denominated the A’kanda, is in the third Kdndi of the Taittirfya Brdhmana of the
Black Yajur Vdda (Author’s MS. fol. 41,) named the Kali, the designation which it now
commonly bears.

t Mahldhara renders this a ” Guru of the Charakas,” who beionged to a Shfikha of the
B I ack-T a j n r- Vdd a .

132

WHAT CASTE IS.

139 Papmane

140 PratishricthAya

141 Ghoshuya

142 Antdya

143 Anaiitaya

144 Shahddya

145 Mahase

146 Kro&hdya

147 Avaraspardya

14S Vandya

149 Anyatoranydya^

150 Agnayi
lol Prithivyai

152 Vdyave

153 Antarikshdya...

Sailagam,

Artanam,

Bhadiam,

Bahuvddmam,

MiiJtam,

Adambaraghdtam,

Vindvddam,

Twmvadhmam, ...
Shankhadhmam, ...

Vanapam,
Ddvapam, _

Pivdnam,

Pit/iasarpinam,

Chdnddlam,
Vanshanartinam, ..

154 Dive ... Khalathn,

155 Surydya ... Haryaksham,

153 Kakshatrebhyoh Kirmiram,

157 Chandramase Kildsam, «.

158 Anhe ... Shuklam Pingdk-

sham,

159 Ratrayai ... Krishnam Pingdk-

sham,

.. for Depravity,

.. for 8ilent-listening,
. for Noise,

.. for the End-of-Life,
. for Infinity,
for Sound,

. for a Festival (sea-
son of worship),

. for Weeping,

. for Procession,

. for the Forest,

.. for an Unpassahle-
Forest,

,. for Fire,

. for the Earth,

for the Wind,

. for the Firmament
(Middle-of-the
Sky),

. for the Heaven, ...

. for the Sun,

. for the .Constella-
tions,

. for the Moon,
for the Day,

for Night,

a Follaicer-of-his'
own Inclinations.
a Sufferer.
a Speaker.
a Much-speaker.
a Dumb-person.
a Beater-of- drums.
a Player-on-the~
Vind.

a Blower-of-the- Tuna.
a Bloicer-of-the-
Conch.
a Forester.
a Burner.

a IVaterman.

1 Lame person (''one
who creeps or moves
along on a seat").

1 Chd’iddla.
a Pole-dancer.

i Bald-headed man.
a Man with greenish
eyes.

a Man-of-variegated
colour.

a Man-with-scabs.
Reddish-eyed- per-
son.

Da rk -rtd-eyed-per-
son.

Such is the thirtieth adhyaija of the Yajur-Vecia, in a
complete form. Though found in the Sanhita of that
Veda, it clearly belongs to the period of the Brahmana,
— from 800-600 B. C., — when the liturgical arrange-
ments of the A ryas assumed their definite form. It
throws much light on the state of Indian Societ}^ at the
time to which it l3elongs. It mentions various distinc-
tive classes in the community. Some of these are viewed
in their moral aspects, as those of the thief, the murderer.

ORIGIN OF CASTE- NOTICES IN THE YAJUR YEDA. 133

the drunkard, the paramour, the adulteress, the licen-
tious-woman, the liberator, the thievish-hearted one, the
backbiter, the virtuous-man, the slothful-man, and the
man-that-follows-his-own inclinations. Some of them
are noticed in connexion with natural deformities, defici-
encies, infirmities, and diseases, as those of the madman,
the blind-person, the hunchback, the dwarf, the deaf-
person, the blear-eyed person, the leper, the infirm-per-
son, the sufferer, the baldheaded-man, the person-wdth-
scabs, the person- who-creeps (who is lame?) Some of
them are mentioned in connexion with their personal and
family peculiarities, as the eunuch, the son-of-an-unmarri-
ed-g’irl, llie married-elder-brother, the barren-woman, the
bearer-of-twins,the woman-without-offspring, the woman-
who-has-not-born-a-child, the woman-in-her-courses, the
old-woman, the man-with-greenish-eyes, the man-with-
variegated-eyes, the man-with-reddish-eyes, and the
man-witli-red-eyes. Some of them are introduced in
connexion with their employments and social relations,
as the actor, the attendant-on-the-synagogue, the orator,
the artist, the chariotraaker, the carpenter, tlie black-
smith, the jeweller, the sower, the raaker-of-arrows, the
maker-of-bows, the maker-of-bowstrings, the ropemaker,
the huntsman, the dograan, the player-at-dice, the
non-player-at-dice, the female basketmaker, the woman-
who-makes-pins (of thorns ?), the companion, the follower,
the obserrer, the physician, the astronomer, the catechist,
the interrogator, the elephant-keeper, the horse-keeper,
the cowherd, the shepherd, the goatherd, the cultivator,
the spirit-dealer, the liouse-kee])er, the holder-of- wealth
(money-lender ?), the runner-after-a-chariot, the wood-

134

WHAT CASTE IS.

man, the fire-kindler, the anointer, the servei'-of- meals,
the figure-maker, the moulder, the sprinkler (with per-
fumes '?), the washerwoman, the dyer-of-clothes, the
lictor (or doorkeeper), the sub-lictor, the body-attendant,
the tax-collector, the ferryman, the joiner, the waiter,
the applier-of-unguents-to-the-eyes, the scabbard-maker,
the female-kiiower-of-sequence (the soothsayer ?), the
skin-dresser, the dealer-in-skins, the fisherman, the
hunter, the fishdealer, the deer-killer, the leaf-seller,
the (l>oat)-binder, the goldsmith, the vender or merchant,
the (hired) mourner, the watchman, the public-crier,
the foreslasher (in battle), the gambler, the viewer-of-
the-early-sun (in worship), the fabricator, the arch-fabri-
cator, the attendant-on-cows, the cow-killer, the priest-
of-the-Charakas, the speaker (of nonsense), the copious-
speaker, the drum-beater, the player-on-the- Yina (lute), the
blower-cf-the-tuna (bagpipes), the blower of the conch,
the forester, the forest-burner, the waterman, the pole-
dancer, Some are noticed who, it may be supposed, had
a definite status of office or rank in the community, as
the Brahman, the Rajan}’a, the Yaishya, the Shudra, the
Suta, the Vratya. And some are mentioned as belonging
to tribes receiving their denominations principall}'’ from
the countries to which they l)elonged, as the Ayogava,
the Magadha, the Taskara, the Naishada, the Dasha
(Dasyu), the Kaivarta, the Bainda (ofVind), the Mainal,
the Kirata, the Jambhaka, the Kimpuru.?ha, the Paul-
ka.sa (or Pulkasa), and the Chandala. All this testifies
to the multifariousness of rank and division of labour
in the Indian community.

Many of the classes of men here mentioned were ulti-

ORIGIN OF CASTE-NOTICES IN THE YAJUR VEDA. 135

mately recognized as forming distinctive Castes, as will
appear from their designations when compared with the
list of castes which we have already inserted.* In the
passage, which, we have just quoted, however, there is
no decided proof of anything like a complete establish-
ment of the caste-sj^stem at the time to which it
belongs. The Brdlnnan, doubtless, had his claims to
superiority from his office of conversancy with the Brah-
ma, now probably generally hereditary. The prince is
the representative of the Kshatra, or power. Tillage is in
the hands of the Vaishya, who, it is to be noticed, is dis-
tinct from the Vdni, or merchant. The symbolical re-
presentative of toil is the Shudra. The numerous parties
engaged in distinctive occupations are certainly not men-
tioned in any order of rank or even of fixed profession-
There is here no fabulous reference to any parties born
of a conventional or adulterous mixture of Caste. If the
Caste .system did at this time exist to any extent, it was
far from being matured. Most of the classes mentioned
without such patronymics as we find in the case of the
Magadhas and Chandalas, we have reason to believe,
were Aryas, or related to the AVyas. It is to be parti-
cularly observed that no exterior tribes are mentioned
which have been recognized geographicallyas having their
location south of the Vindhya mountains. This range, up
to the period of the composition of this Adhyaya, had
probably not been crossed by the A ryas.

The Purusha Sukta, which we have already quoted
from the Rig- Veda, f follows this Adhyaya in the White
Yajur-Veda. Little light is cast on its mysterious sym-

* See above, pp. 65-70. f See above, pp. 118-119.

136

WHAT CASTE IS.

holism by the commentator Malhdhara. Without com-
punction, and without any attention to the literal meaning
of his text, he derives the Brahman jfrojn the mouth of
Prajapati, the Ksliatri}’a from his arms, and the Yaishya
from his thighs. The Indian mind had undergone a grear.
deterioration wlien it turned poetical figures into literal
facts ; uhen it turned the simple and natural, though
ph3'siolatrous, poetry’ of the Vedas into legendrv; and when
it multiplied and magnified the legends to enormities and
absurdities of the most grotesque and monstrous character.

This deterioration of the Indian mind is particular!}^
apparent in the Atharva, or fourth VMa, to which, in
connexion with tlie subject before us, we now turn our
attention. As already mentioned, the word Atharva cor-
responds with the Zand A'thrava, etymologically a fire-
man.* It occurs in the Rig- Veda as the name of a
particular Rishi or sage, from the constituents of whose
school, or course, in after times it probably received its de-
signation. It differs very considerably in its authority and
character from the other Vedas, which, more than it, are
particularly associated with sacrifice. “As there are three
different branches of the ceremonial, the ^^eda is, for the
better performance of the sacrifices, divided into three ;
the Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Sama-Veda. The cere-
monial of the Ilotri priests is performed w ith the Rig-
Vetla j that of the Adhvaryu priests, wdlh the Yajur-
Veda ; that of the Udgatri priests, with the Sama-Veda.
The duties of the Brahman priests, and of him for whom
the sacrifice is offered, are also contained in these three
Vedas. The Atharva- Veda is not used for solemn sacri-

* See above, p. 91.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— THE PURUSIIA MEDIIA.

137

fices, and is very different from tlie others, as it teaches
only expiatory, preservative, or imprecatory rites.” This
sensible opinion of Madlmsudan Sarasvati, quoted by Dr.
Miiller,* has been confirmed by the research of European
and American orientalists. “ The Atharvana,” says Pro-
fessor Whitney (with Dr. R. Roth, the joint-editor of its
Text,t) “ is like the Rich, a historical general, and not a
liturgical collection- Its first eighteen books, of which
alone it was originally composed, are arranged upon a
like system throughout : the length of the hymns, and
not either their subject or their alleged authorship,
being the guiding principle : those of about the same
number of verses are combined together into books, and
the books made up of the shorter hymns stand first in
order. A sixth of the mass, however, is not metrical,
but consists of longer or shorter prose pieces, nearly
akin in point of language and style to passages of the
Brahmanas. Of the remainder, or metrical portion,
about one-sixth is also found among the hymns of the
Rich, and mostly in the tenth book of the latter : the rest
is peculiar to the Atharva. The greater portion of
them are plainly shown, both by their language and in-
ternal character, to be of much later date than the
general contents of the other historic Veda (the Rig-
Veda), and even than its tenth book, with which
they stand nearly connected in import and origin.”
“ The most prominent characteristic feature of the
Atharvana is the multitude of incantations which it con-

* History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 122. For Madhusiidan’s complete
view of the Orthodox Brahmanical Literature, see Weber’s Indische
Studien, i. p. 1-20.

t In the work, as edited by them, there are 10,296 lines. .

138

AVHAT CASTE IS.

tains; these are pronounced either by the person who is
himself to be benefited, or, more often, by the sorcerer
for him, and are directed to the procuring of the greatest
variety of desirable ends ; most frequently, perhaps, long
life, or recovery from grievous sickness, is the object
sought : there a talisman, such as a necklace, is some-
times given, or in very numerous cases some plant en-
dowed with marvellous virtues is to be the immediate
external means of cure ; further, the attainment of wealth
or power is aimed at, the downfall of enemies, success in
loA^e or in play, the removal of petty pests, and so on,
even down to tJie growth of hair on a bald pate.”* “ The
origin of the Atharva Sanhita,” says Professor Weber,
“ falls within the period when Brahmanism had become

dominant Many of the hymns which it contains are to

be found also in the Rik-Sanhita,f bnt there they are
recent interpolations originating in the period wdien its
compilation took place, while in the Atharva collection
they are the just and proper expression of the present.
The spirit of the two collections is entirely different.
In the Rik there breathes a lively natural feeling, a warm
love for nature ; while in the Atharva, on the contrary,
there predominates an anxious apprehension of evil spirits
and their magical powers : in the Rik we see the people
in the exercise of perfect freedom and voluntary activity,
while in the Atharva, we observe them bound in the
fetters of the hierarchy and superstition.”! The very

* Joum. of the American Or. Soc. ir. 254-5, 308.

t [Less proportionally of the material of the Atharva-Veda is from
the Rig-V^da than that of the Sama and Yajas. j

1 Hist, of Ind. Lit. quoted in Muir’s Texts, ii. p. 202.

OKIGIX OF CASTE— THE PURUSHA MEDHA. 139

name of the Atharva Veda, derived from a particular
class of priests, shows that originally it had somewhat
of a sectarial character. “ According to the original dis-
tribution of the sacrificial offices among the four classes
of priests, the supervision of the whole sacrifice, and the
remedying of any mistake that might have happened
belonged to the Brahman. He had to know the three
Vedas, to follow in his mind the whole sacrifice, and to
advise the other priests on all doubtful points. If it
was the office of the Brahman to remedy mistakes in the
performance of the sacrifice, and if, for that purpose, the
formulas of the Atharvangiras were considered of special
efficacy, it follows that it was chiefly the Brahman who
had to acquire a knowledge of these formulas. Now the
office of the Brahman was contested by the other classes
of priests. The Bahvrichas maintain that the office of
Brahman should be held by a Bahvricha (Hotri), the
Adhvaryas maintain that it belongs to one of their own
body, and the Chhandogas also preferred similar claims.
It was evidently the most important office, and in man}'^
instances, though not always, it was held by the Puro-
hita, the hereditary family priest. Certain families also
claimed a peculiar fitness for the office of Brahman,
such as the Vasishthas, and Vishvamitras... Because a
knowledge of the songs of the Atharvangiras was most
important to the Brahman or Purohita; these songs them-
selves, when once admitted to the rank of a Veda, were
called the Veda of the Brahman, or the Brahma-Veda.”‘

* Muller’s History of Sanskrit Literature, pp. 447-8.

Dr. M. adds, however, “ It is a common mistake in later writers to
place the Atharva Veda co-ordinate with the other Vedas.”

140

WHAT CASTE IS.

Tliat the Atliarva Veda should magnify the Indian
priesthood, and especially the Brahman, as distinguished
from the Hotri, Adhvaryu, etc., is but natural on the
ground here stated. We now refer to the general infor-
mation bearing on our inquiries which it contains.

Both the Brahmans and the Kshatra are represented in
it as engaged in extolling Agni.* In behalf of a Raj^ the
prayer is offered up that he may be the only lord of his
country, and that he may be praised by the Visha (here
his subjects in general) throughout his realm.! The
Kshatra, Rathakara, Karmhra, and the Gramani and
Suta established in the service J of a Kaja are men-
tioned as associated together. § A Purohita (family
priest) prays that the bravery and power of the Kshatra
whom he represents may be undecaying.|| Of the Brah-
man it is said, “ The Brahman was the first born with ten
heads (and) ten faces (that is, probably with extraordi-
nary capacities) ; he was the first that drank the Soma, he
made poison a (harmless) juice.”^ The Shtidra is recog-
nized as distinct from the A’rya,** and also the Dasa from
the A'rya, as in the Rig-Veda.ff Visbvaraitra, origi.
nally of the royal race, and Jamadagni, are associated
with the Brahmanic Vasi.ditha in the protection of Mitra
and Varuna. The supremacy of the Brahman is thus
set forth : — “ Th^Brahman is lord, not the Rajanya, nor

* Atbarva Veda, ii. 6. 2, 4. f Atliarva Veda, iii. 4. 1-2.

t Rajakntah. § A. V. iii. 5. 1-7.

II A. V. iii. 19. 1-2. %A. V. iv. 6. 1.

* ^ U'f 'T^r a . By it, (a particular medicine) I see

everything, whether the Shudra or the Arya, A. V. iv. 20. 8.

ft A. V. iv. 32. 1.

ORIGIN OF CASTE- NOTICES IN THE ATHARVA \Ti:DA.114r

the Vaishya''* “ Let not the Bajanya,'” it is enjoined,
desire to eat the inedible cow of a Brahman”,! a claim
being thus put forth of a privilege for the Brahman’s pet,
afterwards extended by degrees to the bovine race in
general. The Brahman’s life, it is said, is not to be
taken, and his body is to be loved like that of Agni.j:
A curious passage coaxing the departure of a certain dis-
ease called Takman (first brought to notice by Dr. Roth)
throws some light on the boundaries of the Indo- Aryan
community and its distant neighbours. “ His (Tak-
man’s) abode are the Mujavats, his abode the Mahd-
virshas. As soon as thou art born, O Takman, thou so-
journest (1) among the Bahlikas. Go, Takman, to the
Mujavats, or far way to the Bahlikas. Choose the female
Shudra for food ; and shake her. Passing by our
friends ('?), devour the Mahavrishas and the Mujavats.
We point out to Takman these or those foreign regions.
Takman along with thy brother Balasa, and with thy
sister Kasika (cough), and with thy nephew Paman,
depart to that foreign people. We transfer T;)kman
as a servant and as a treasure, to the Gandharins,
the Mujavats, the Anyas and the Magadhas”'^ An
extract is given from the hymn in the Rig- Veda in
which Vasishiha complains of being called a Ydtudhdna

* Clil-qt ^’^51 : A. V. V. 17. 9.

t ITT mfiw V rii^ ^it raEifer ^?ir?T. a. v. v. is. 1.

t A. V. V. 18. 6.

II A. V. V. 22. 5-14. The translatioa of this passage is from Muir’s
Texts, ii. 3G4. Mantras like this are yet repeated for the banishment
of disease from India.

142

WHAT CASTE IS.

by Vishvumitra-* The word Brahmachari seems to be
used as synonimous with Brahman, and is set forth as the
first l)orn of the Bralima or prayer, Arhich he advances-t
The Purusha Sukta is given with a few variations from
the form in which it appears in the Rig- Veda. The text
of it which applies to caste reads thus : — “ The Brahman
w'as his mouth; the Rajanya became (abhavat) his arms ;
the Vaishya was his middle (madhyam) ; the Shudra
sprung from his feet-”J Though, as w^e have already
shown, little stress is to be laid on this passage, it is
evident that the collection of the Atharva Veda was made
when the caste system had made considerable progress.

2. We now leave the Vedas, and proceed to the Brdh-
inaiuis.

The Brdhmanas, which are to be distinguished from the
JNIantras, or Vedic Texts, derived from the Sanhitas or
collections of the Vethc Hymns, are essentially consider-
ed Liturgical and Rubiical Directories for the ceremonies
to be performed by the Brahmans, from their connexion
with whom, or as comprehending the Brahma technically
understood, they deiive their name. Them contents, how-
ever, are really of a varied character. “ The difficulty,” says
Dr, Muller, ofgmug an exhaustive definition of what a
Brahmana is, has been felt by the Brahmans themselves.
The name given to this class of literature does not teach
us more than that these works belonged to the Brahmans,
They are Brahmanic, i. e. theological tracts, compiising

* A. V. viii. 4. 14-] 6. Attention to this passage, as found in the
R. V., was first drawn by Dr. Mullerin Bunsen’s Outlines of the Phil, of
Un. Hist. i. p. 344.

f A. V. xi. 5. 4-7.

1 A. V. 19. 6-6.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE BRA'IIMANAS. 143

the knowledge most valued by the Brahmans, bearing
partly on the traditions and customs of the people. They
profess to teach the performance of the sacrifice ; but for
the greater part they are occupied with additional matter;
with explanations and illustrations of things more or less
distantly connected with their original faith and their an-
cient ceremonial.” “ There was originally but one body of
Brahmanas for each of the three Vedas ; for the Rie-
Veda, the Brahmanas of the Bahvrichas, for the Sama-
Veda the Brahmanas of the Chhandogas, and for the
Yajur-Veda in its two forms, the Brahmanas of the Tait-
tiiiyas, and the Shatapatha Brahmana. These works were
not written in metre, like the Sanhitds, and were therefore
more exposed to alteration in the course of a long con-
tinued oral tradition. We possess the Bralimana of the
Bahvrichas in the Shakhas [Memorial Stems, or Schools]
of the Aitareyins and the Kaushitakins.” *

“ Tire Brahmanas,” Dr. Muller continues, “ represent no
doiibt a most interesting phase m the history of the In-
dian mind, but judged by themselves, as literary produc-
tions, they are more disappointing. No one would have
supposed that at so early a period, and in so primitive a
state of society, there could have risen up a literature,
which for pedantry and downright absurdity can hardly
be matched anywhere. There is no lack of striking
thoughts, of bold expressions, of sound reasonmg, and
curious traditions in these collections. But these are only
like the fragments of a torso, like precious gems set in
brass and lead. The general character of these works is
marked by shallow and insipid grandiloquence, by priestly

* History of Sanscrit Literature, pp. 342-346.

144

WHAT CASTE IS.

conceit, and antiquarian pedantry. It is most important
to the historian that he should know how soon the fresh
and healthy growth of a nation can be blighted by priest-
craft and superstition. It is most important that we
should know that nations are liable to these epidemics in
then’ youth as well as in their dotage. These works
deserve to be studied as the physician studies the twaddle
of idiots, and the raving of madmen. They will disclose to
a thoughtful eye the ruins of faded grandeiu-, the memories
of noble aspirations. But let us only try to translate these
works into our own language, and we shall feel astonished
that human language and human thought should ever
have been used for such purposes.” * These writings,
however, are still deserving of special attention. “ Though
their professed object is to teach the sacrifice, they allow a
much larger space to dogmatical, exegetical, mystical, and
philosophical speculations than to the ceremonial itself.
They appeal continually to older authorities.” f “ The
Brahmanas exhibit the accumulated thought of a long suc-
cession of early theologians and philosophers. But the
very earliest of these sages follow a train of thought which
gives clear evidence of a decaying religion.” J “ These
books Avill always be to us the most valuable sources for
tracing the beginnings of thought on divine things; and, at
the same time, sources from Avhich we may draw the most
varied information regarding the conceptions on which the
entire system of worship, as well as the social and hierar-
chical order of India are founded.” ^

History of Sanscrit Literature, pp. 389-390.

f Ib. p. 328. J Ib. pp. 429.

§ Dr. Koth’s Introduction to the Nirukta, quoted in Muir’s Texts,
p. 193.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE BRAIIMANAS. 145

At the time of the composition of the Brahmanas, which
may be stated as extending from 800 to 600 B. C-,
the collection of the three olden Vedas was doubtless
formed. The following passage from the Aitareya Brdli-
mana, which is Avorthy of notice in sev eral particulars, esta-
blishes this fact, as far as that work at least is concerned.
“ Prajapati desired that for the being of Praja (offspring)
there should be done (Avhat Avas required). He, setting a
toiling, performed tapa (toil). After performing topa, he
created these Worlds — the Earth, the Medial Expanse f :in~
tarikhsha), (and) HeaA'en (Diva). HaA'ing performed
tapa for these AA orlds, he again performed tapa, and the three
Lights were produced — Fire (Agni) from earth, Wind
(Vayu) from the expanse, and the Sun (Aditya) from the
lieaA en. Having performed tapa for these lights, he again
performed tapa, and the three Vedas Avere produced ; — the
Rig Veda sprung from fire ; the Yajur-Veda, from AA'ind ;
and the Saina-Veda from the sun. Having performed
tapa for these Vedas, he again performed tapa, and
the three Shukras AAere produced. JBhii was made
from the Rig- Veda ; Bhuva, from the Yajur-Veda, and
Sva from the Saina Veda. Having performed tapa for
these Shukras, he again performed tapa, (and) the three
Varnas AA'ere made — «kar, nkar, »<nkar. From the combi-
nation of these (OM», quasi Aum) Avas produced.”* The

* As this is one of the earliest accounts of Creation according
to Hindu notions, we may give the Sanskrit of this passage : —
niri'^^iT'irf^JTrrJir?! h irr^^Resrrr

rt\ C

-41 ^

146

WHAT CASTE IS.

collections of the Vedas are here distinctively mentioned,
tliouoli a very different orio-in is attributed to these works

O *• O

from any mentioned by the Rishis themselves, the veri-
table composers of the \ edic Hymns, who indite from
their own mental impulse, or ask the assistance of the gods
in their laudatory and supplicatory compositions. The
triliteral, and afterwards mystical, syllable AUM, OM,
seems here derived from the initial letters — a of Agni, w
(the vocal representative of v) of Vdxju, and m of Mitra
(the midday sun, the equivalent of Aditya). Of the S/mJc-
ras, with OM prefixed to the Gayatri verse of the Rig-
Veda (3 asht. 10th varg) bhu. means earth, hhiiva sky,
and svci, heaven. All this technical trifling (and it was
afterwards greatly extended) betokens degeneration.

The Brahmans, as a pre-eminent class, are particularly
brought to notice, in the Aitareya Brdhmana, the princi-
pal notices of which bearing on Caste we shall now in-
troduce.

In the first chapter of the first Panchika of this work,
the following passages occur in connexion with the D'lkh-
shd, or sacrifice of the new birth, when a man is admitted
for the first time to the use of sacrifice : — “ He Avho wishes
for beauty and for wisdom (brahmavarchasaj , let him use

fiTifritr w'Tl ^?rr'^'iTr?T

*Pfrr-

rcfr Ait. Brah. V. 5. Author’s MS.

No. 1. fol. 61 ; No. 2. fol. 148. The first of these MSS. is a trophy
of peace, from a converted Biahman ; the second a trophy of wai’,
Avith other Vedic works part of the plunder of the Bombay troops
at the late affairs of Bet and Dvaraka, presented to me by my friend
Dr. John Grant Nicolson.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE BRAIIMANAS. 147

the two Gavatn verses of the Svishtakrit. The Gayatrl is
beau tv, full of Avisdom. He who knowing this uses the two

Gayatns becomes possessed of beauty and wisdom

Let him who desires strength, use the tAA’o Trishtubhs.
Trishtubh is strength, which is vigour and power. He Avho
knowing this uses (the) two Trishtubhs, becomes strong,
vigorous and powerful. Let him who desii’es cattle, use
(the) two Jagatis, Cattle is Jagati-like, He who knowing
this uses the two Jagatis becomes rich in cattle.”* In the
fifth chapter of the same section, the Brahman is com-
manded to use the Gayatri for wisdom and glory; the
Rajanya, the Trishtubh, for sjilendour and bravery ; and
the Vaishya, the Jagati, for the obtaiument of cattle.
The characteristics of the three classes of the ATyas are
here, for the first time, distinctively recognized, f

In the second section of the Brahmana now referred to,|
a party denominated Kavasha Ailusha, is represented as
expelled from the sacrifice as a Dasyaputra, and re-ad-
mitted only by the special favour of the gods, although
certain hymns in the Rig- Veda are ascribed to him as
then Rishi m the Anukramanika (or Index) of that Veda.
The name Kavasha appears to me to be Iranian, and is
similar to one found among the Parsis of the present day.^

* This chapter of the Brahmana is translated by Dr. Max Muller
(from whom I borrow these sentences) with his usual life and elegance,
in his History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature pp. 390-405.

I Author’s MS. No. 1 fol. 9, of Panchika i. Several other similar pas-
sages occur in this Brahmana.

I Ait. Brahmana, ii. 19.

§ In Kavas (ji). The Zand name is Kava iiq. This in Sanskrit
(in the adjective form) as shown by Dr. Roth (Zeit. D. M. G. ii.
p. 226-7) is Kavya Ushash.

148

WHAT CASTE IS.

The probability is that when the Hymns of Kavaslia were
composed, no exception Avas taken against them because
of his race, tlie caste-system having not been then fully
developed, while in the age of the Brahmana, it was
thought expedient to invent a legend, or fiction, to support
that system.

In the thhd Pancbika, the Brahman is spoken of as
standing in the relationship of Brihaspati, the Purohita of
the gods.*

In the seAeiith Pancbika, there is an important passage
which is thus noticed by Dr. jM idler. — “We find several
instances Avhere priests, if once employed by a royal family,
claim to be employed ahvays. When .Tanamejaya Parik-
shita ventured to perform a sacrifice AA'ithout the Kash-
yapas, he was forced by the Asitamrigas, a family of the
Kashyapas to employ them again. When Vishvantara
Saushadmana drove away the Shyaparnas from his sacri-
fice, he was prevailed upon by Rama hlargaveya to call
them back”.'!' All this sIioaas that the priestly office was
of great importance in the ancient times of India.

In the seventh pancbika and seventh chapter of this
Aitareya Brahmana, there is a remarkable legend connect-

Aitareya Br. iii. 2. 17.

Ait. Br. vii. 5. 27. “ ilargaveya,” says Dr. Muller, (Hist, of

S. Lit. p. 487) “ is a difficirlt name. It may be simply, as Sayana
says, the son of his mother IMrigii ; but Mrigu may be a variety of
Bhrigu, and thus confirm Lassen’s conjecture that this Eama is Eama,
the son of Jamadagni, of the race of Bhrigu, commonly called Parashu-
rama. Cf. Weber, Ind. Stud. i. 216.” In this espousement of the
cause of these Purohitas, we perhaps see the origin of the exaggerated
legends of the destruction of the Kshatriyas by Parashurama.

ORIGIN OF CASTE-NOTICES IN THE BRAHMANAS. 149

ed with Havishclmiidra, the son of Vedhas of the Royal
family of Ikshvaku, which, although of a very wild charac-
ter, throws a good deal of light on the state of ancient
A'ryan society. It has been noticed of late years by
several orientalists, and has long been effectively applied
by myself in my intercourse with the Brahmans in illus-
tration of the gradual growth of caste feeling in India.
While referring to it, both as found in the original and as
quoted and translated by Dr. ]\Iax M tiller, we would
note what connected with it appears to hear on this
development of caste. Harishchandra, though he had
a hundred wives, had no son. On the advantages of a son
having been propounded to him in ten verses by Narada
(a sage often brought to notice in Indian dialogues,)* he
applied, as dwected, to Varuna for one, promising if his
wishes were realized to sacrifice him to that deity. A son
was born to him called Rohita. With varying pretences, as-
sented to by V aruna, he got repeated postponements of the
engagement till the son w as ten days old, till his first set
of teeth came, till these teeth fell out, till he got new teeth,
and till as a Kshatriya he was girt with armour. When
the father at length consented to fulfill his promise, the
son took his bow, went to the forest, and lived there for a
year, when, on his father having been afflicted with di-opsy
by Varuna, he retimied to the village. Indra, in the form
of a Brahman, having advised him again to w ander about
in the forest, he did this for a second, a tim’d, a fourth, a
fifth, and a sixth year on the repeated advice of this God,

* In stating the advantages of a son, a daughter is declared to he
an-object-of-pity— f

150

WHAT CASTE IS.

following his annual visits to the village. * When he was
travelling in the sixth year, “He met in the forest a
starving Rishi, Ajigarta, the son of Suvavasa. He had
three sons — Shunahpuccha, Shiinahshepha, and Shun-
olangula. Rohita said to him : “ Rishi, I give you a hun-
dred cows, I ransom myself ^vith one of those thy sons.”
The Father embraced the elder, and said, “Not him.”
“ Nor him,” said the mother, embracing the yomigest.
And the parents bargained to give Shunahsliepha, the mid-
dle son. Rohita gave a hundi-ed, took him, and went from
the forest to the village. And he came to his father, and
said: “Father, Death! I ransom myself by him.” The
father Avent to Yarima, and said, “ I shall sacrifice this
man to you.” Varum said, “ Yes, /or a Brahman is bet-
ter than a Kshatriya.” And he told liim to perfonn a
Rajasuya sacrifice, f Harishchandra took him to be the
A'ictim for the day, when the Soma is spent to the gods.
Vishvamitra [a Kshatriya Avho, it is said, by his know-
ledge and practice forced himself into the acknowledg-
ed profession of the BrahmanhoodJ] was his Hotri-
priest ; Jamadagni, his Adhvaryu priest; Vasi.«htha [a
Brahman with whom VishAamitra had oft contend-

® On the fifth occasion Indra uses tliis argument : — “ A man who
is asleep is like the Kali (age) ; a man who is awake is like the Dvdpara;
a man who is arisen is the Tretd ; a man who is travelling is like
the Krita. Travel ! Travel ! ” Dr. Muller correctly says, “ This is
one of the earliest allusions to the four ages of the world.” Two others
we have already noticed. See above, p. 131.

f A great monarchical sacrifice, at which in addition to the religiotts
sendees, the chieftains assembled to express their fealty.

f See before, p. 104.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE BRAIIMANAS. 151

etl], the Brahmd ;* Ayasya,, the Ud(jQ.tri priest. When
Shunahshepha had been prepared, they found nobody to
bind him to the sacrificial post. And Ajigarta, the son
of Suyavasa, said, ‘ Give me another hundred, and I shall
hind him.’ They gave him another hundred, and he
bound him. And Ajigarta, the son of Sdyavasa, said :
‘ Give me another hundred, and I shall kill him.’ They
gave him another hnndred, and he came whetting his
sword. Then Shunahshepha thought. ‘ They will readi-
ly kill me, as if I was not a man. Death ! I shall pray to
the gods.’ He addressed himself first to Prajapati, who
refeiTed him to Agni, who referred him to Savitri, who re-
ferred him to Varnna, who referred him to Agni, who
referred him to the Vishve-Devah, who referred him to
Tndra, who referred him to the Ashvinan (two Ashvius,)
who said to him, “ Praise Ushas (the Dawn), and we
set thee free.” Thus he praised Ushas with three verses.

While each Averse was delivered, his fetters were loosed,
and Harischandra’s belly greAv smaller, and Avhen the last
verse Avas said his fetters Avere loosed, and Harischandra
Avell again.” With this result the priests Avere so Avell
satisfied that they Avere content to act for the day under
the direction of Shunahshepha. He invented the cere-
mony called the Anjahsava. “ AfterAvards he earned out
all the things belonging to the Avabritha ceremony, em-
ploying tAvo verses, and made Harishchandra go to the
A'shavaniya fire with another hymn.” What folloAved re-
quires particular attention. “ When the sacrifice had thus

Dr. Muller renders this by the equivalent Brahman, Avhich word,
unless when otherwise used in the Sanskrit authorities, it may be pro-
per to reserve for the designation of the caste so called.

152

WIIAT CASTE IS,

been performed Shunahsliepha sat down on the lap of
Vislivamitra [in furtherance of his adoption as his son].
Ajigarta, the son of Suyavasa said : ‘ Rishi, give me back
my son.’ Vislivamitra said, ‘No ; for the gods have given
him to me.’ He became Devarata (Theodotus) the son
of Vislivamitra ; and the memhers of the families of Kapila
and Babhru hecame his relations. Ajigarta, the son of
Shyavasa, said : ‘ Come thou, O son, we, both and thy
mother call thee away.’ Ajigarta, the son of Suyavasa,
said : ‘ I'hou art hy hirth an Angirasa, the son of Ajigar-
ta, celebrated as a poet. O Rishi, go not away from the line
of thy grandfather, come back to me.’ Shunahsliepha
replied, ‘ They have seen thee with a knife in thy hand,
a thing that men have never found even amongst Shtidras ;
thou hast taken three hundred cows for me, 0 Angiras.’
Ajigarta, the son of Suyavasa, s^id : ‘ J\Iy old son it grieves
me for the wrong that I have done ; I throw it away, may
these hundred cows belong to thee.’ Shunahsliepha re-
plied : ‘ Who once commits a sin will commit also another

sin; thou Avilt not abstain from the Avays of Shudras;
Avhat thou hast committed cannot be redressed. “ Cannot
be redressed,” Vislivamitra repeated. “Dreadful stood
the son of Suyavasa Avhen he Aveut to kill Avith his knife.
Be not his son, come and be my son.” “ Shnnahshepba
said : ‘ Tell ns thyself, O son of a king, thus as thou
art known to us, how I, who am an A'ngirasa, shall become
thy son.’ Vislivamitra replied : ‘ Thou shalt be the eldest
of my sons, thy ofi’spring shall be the first, thou shalt
receive the heritage Avhich the gods have given me, thus
I address thee.’ Shunahsliepha replied: ‘May the

leader of the Bharatas say so, in the presence of his

ORIGIN OF CASTE-NOTICES IN THE BRAIBIANAS. 153

agreeing sons, for friendship’s and happiness’s sake, that
I shall become thy son.’ Then Vislivamitra addressed
his sons : ‘ Hear me, Madhuchliandas, Rishablia, Renu,

Ash taka, and all ye brothers that you are, believe in
seniority.’ Tljis Vishvamitra had a hundred sons, fifty
older than Madhuchliandas, and fifty younger. The
elder did not like this, and Vishvamitra pronounced a
curse upon them, that they should become outcastes.
They became Andhras, Pundras, Sliabaras, ^Pulindas,
Mutihas and many other outcaste tribes, so that the de-
scendants of Vishvamitra became the worst of the Dasyus.
But Madhuchliandas, together with the other-fifty sons^
said : ‘ What our father tells us, in that we abide ; we
place thee before us and follow thee.’ Wlien Yishvami-
tra heard this, he praised his sons and said : ‘ You sons

will have good children and cattle, because you have
accepted my will, and have made me rich in brave sons.
You, descendants of Gathin,* are to be honoured by all,
you brave sons, led by Devarata ; he will be to you
good counsel. You, descendants of Kusika, follow De-
varata, he is your hero, he will give you my riches,
and whatever knowledge I possess. You are wise, all

* Puniravas.

Jahnu.

X Gatliiu Kausika (Bhrigus).

Jainadagni X Eenuka.

Parashurama.

154

WHAT CASTE IS.

ye sons of Vislivamiti’a together ; you are rich, you
stood to uphold Devarata, and to mako him your eldest,
descendants of Gathin. Devarata* (Shunahshepha) is
mentioned as a Rishi of both families, in the chiefdom
of the Jahnus, and in the divine Veda of the Gathins.”’t

* “ This last verse, which is also attributed to Vishvamitra, ought
to be taken rather as a recapitulation of the whole story. Jahnu is one
of the ancestors of Vishvamitra, belonging to the lunar Dynasty ;
Gathin is considered as Vishvamitra’s father. The commentator gives
Jahnu as a Rishi of the family of Ajigarta, which seems better to agree
with the Vedic story.”

t Muller’s History of S. L. p. 408-419.

The legend or story of Shunahshepha as here given in the Aitareya
Brahmana has been changed to a considerable extent in later Indian
works, as has been summarily noticed by Professor H. H. Wilson. (Rig-
Veda, i. jjp. 59-60.) “The story of Shunahshepas, or as usually written,
Shunalishephas, has been for some time known to Sanskrit students
through the version of it presented in Ramayana, b. i. ch. 61, Schle-
gel : 63, Gorresio. He is there called the son of the Rishi Richika,
and is sold for a hundred cows by his father to Amban'sha, king of
Ai/odhpd, as a victim for a human sacrifice; on the road, he comes to
the lake Ptislilcara, where he sees Vishvamitra, and implores his suc-
cour, and learns from him a prayer, by the repetition of which at the
stake, Indra is induced to come and set him free. It is obvious that
tliis story has been derived from the Veda, for Vishvamitra teaches him,
according to Schlegel’s text, two Gdthds, according to Gorresio’s, a
mantra ; but the latter also states, that he propitiated Indra by Richas ;
mantras of the Rig-Veda (Rigbhis-tushtava devendram), vol. i. p. 249.
Manu also alludes to the story (10, 105), Avhereit is said that Ajigartta
incurred no guilt by giving up his son to be sacrificed, as it was to
preserve himself and fiimily from perishing with hunger.... The Bhaga-
vat follows the Aitareya and Mann, in terming Shunahshepas the son
of Aj igartta, and names the Rdjd also Ilan’schandra. In the Vishnu
Purdna, he is called the son of Vishvdimitra, and is termed also Deva-
rdta, or god-given; but this relates to subsequent occurrences, noticed
in like manner by the other authorities, in which he becomes the

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE BRAIBIANAS. 155

Tlie pre-eminence of the Brahman to the Kshatriya is
here set forth by the alleged greater acceptability to the
gcds as a sacrifice of a Brdhman than a Kshatruju ; and
by the adoption of the Brahman, (said to have been set
apart for sacrifice) by Vishvamitra. A Brahmanical
disparagement of Vishvamitra and his consociates is also
intended by the absurd allegation that the aboriginal
tribes of the Andhras, Pundras, S/iabaras, Pidindas, and
Miitibas were descended from tliem.* These tribes,
belonging principally to the South of India, appear from
the notice taken of them, to have been known to the
A'ryas at the time of the composition of the Aitareya
Brahmana, while they were not as yet gained over to
Brahmanism. The Andhras were the inhabitants of the
province which was afterwards denominated Telingana
the Pundras are supposed to have occupied the Western
Provinces of Bengal ; J the Shabaras are placed by Ptol-
emy near the (mouths of the) -Ganges ;§ and the Pnlindas
are located by Ptolemy along the banks of the Narmada
to the frontiers of Larice, but in tbe Indian literature
they occur in different positions from the Indus to the
South. 11

adopted son of Vishvamitra, and the eldest of all his sons ; such of
whom as refused to acknowledge his seniority being cursed to become
the founders of various barbarian and outeaste races. Vishimnitra's
share in the legend may possibly intimate his opposition, and that of
some of his disciples, to human sacrifices.”

* Compare this with Manu, pp. 43-45. See above pp. 59-60.
f Wilson's V. P. p. 190. f; Ib. p. 190.

§ Ptol. Geo. vii. Ed. Berth, p. 205.

H Ptol. Geo. vii. Ed. Berth, p. 203. See also Mahabharata,
Bhishma Parva, adh. 6. Cal. Ed. ii. p. 342-344.

156

WHAT CASTE IS.

The relations of the Brahman, Kshatriya, Yaisliya, and
Shudra to sacrifice (yajna) and to one another in a
religious point of view, are mentioned with particularity
towards the conclusion of the seventh panchika of the
Aitareya JBrahraana. “ Prajapati,” it is there said, “ creat-
ed sacrifice. After the sacrifice was created, the Brahma
and the Kshatra Were created. To both the Brahma and
the Kshatra offsprings were created — (called) htitad and
ah lit (id /' That which was from the Brahma was called
hut (id, and that which was from the Kshatra was called
ahutcid. Tlie Brahman was the hutdd offspring; and
the Rdjanija, the Vaishya, and the Shudra belonged to
the ahiitdd. Bv them the sacrifice beo;an to be conduct-
cd. The Brahma and Kshatra came with their instru-
ments. The Brahman came with the instruments of the
Brahma ; and the Kshatriya came with the sacrificial
instruments of the Kshatra. The instruments of the
Brahma were the instruments of the sacrifice, and the
instruments of the Kshatra were the horse, a chariot,
the coat of mail, the arrow and the bow. The Ksha-
triya was not permitted to enter, and seeing that he
could not find entrance he returned- The Brahmans
stood to oppose the entrance of others. The Brahmans
came with their instruments. Therefore the sacrifice is
established in the Brahmans. Afterwards the Ksha-
triyas came, and asked to be called for the sacrifice. Then
the Brahmans said to them, ‘ If you wish to come to the
sacrifice, you must jmt aside your own instruments, and
become like Brahmans, (hrahmonorupeaa) and then

* Hutdd, (from huta and ad) means having the legal capacity of
eating what is offered in sacrifice, and ahiitdd, not having this capacity.

ORIGIN OF CASTE- NOTICES IN THE BRAIIMANAS. 157

come to tlie sacrifice. The Ksliatriyas said, ‘Beit so.’
After putting aside their own instruments, and taking
the instruments of tlie Brahma, they liecame like Brah-
mans, and entered the sacrifice.”* The progress of the
professions and pretensions of the professional priesthood,
and their ultimate establishment of their peculiar pri-
vileges are evident from this passage. The Brahmans, it
teaches, were acting in their own peculiar character when
they conducted sacrifice, while the Kshtriyas when they
sacrificed had to lay aside their own recognized character
aud its emblems, and assume that of the Brahmans. The
sacrifice is establislied in the Brahmans ; and, with the
enlargement and complication of its ritual, the Braliman
is more necessary than ever. Sacrifice is the highest
interest (the first created object) of the community; and
the Brahman, the sacrifice!’, is the head of the community.
He has merely to throiv difficulties in the way of the
Kshatriya’s sacrificing, to secure for himself all that his
heart can desire. Let a Kshatriya, when he becomes
a yajainana, (the institutor of a sacrifice) employ a
Brahman Let the Brahman give liis blessing to the
Kshatriya.:}:

This is accompanied, in the Aitareya Brahmana, with
notices of the manner in which the Brahman is to con-
duct the highest rites in behalf of a king at, and after, the
ceremonies of his inauguration. But on this matter we
may be content with some of the notices taken of it by

* Aitareya Brahman of R. V. vii. 14. 19.

t Tr^rs’^fr.

I In illustration of these two last remarks, see Ait. Brah. vii. 53.4.

158

WHAT CASTE IS.

the learned and accurate Dr. Goldstlicker. In connec-
tion with the Punarahhisheka, the King is made to say,
“ ‘ I firmly stand on heaven and earth, 1 firmly stand
on exhaled and inhaled air, I firml}'^ stand on food
and drink ; on what is Brahman, on what is Ksha-
triya, on these three worlds stand I firmly.’ He then
descends, sits down on the ground with his face towards
the East, utters thrice the words. Adoration to Avhat is
Brahmana, and offers a gift to a Brahman ; the object
of this gift is the obtainment of victory in general, of
victory everywhere, of victory over strong and weak
enemies and of complete victory •, and his threefold
expression of adoration to what is a Brahman implies
that a kingdom prospers, and has valiant men when it is
under the controul of the Brahmans, and that a valiant
son will be born to him.” “ A king for whom these
(certain prescribed) libations are made to Indra in the
indicated manner becomes free from disease, cannot be
injured by enemies, is exempt from poverty, everywhere
protected against danger, and thus becomes victorious
in all quarters, and after death estal)lished in ludra’s
heaven.” “ Priests who understand well how to per-
form the whole rite will raise the king to an exalted
position ; those on the contrary who are ignorant of the
manner in which it is to be performed, will bring him
into perdition.” In connexion with the simple ahhisheka.
Dr. Goldstlicker says, “The ceremony having been com-
pleted, the king has to make a present to the inaugur-
ating priest, viz. a thousand (Xishkas) of gold, a field
and cattle ; but this amount seems merely to constitute
a minimum acknowledgment of the exertions of the

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE BRAHMANAS. 159

priest ; for the text of the Aitare3^a adds, that they say a
king’ should give innumerable illimited presents, since a
king is illimited (in Avealth), and thej^ will obtain illi-
mited benefit to himself ; and the author of the Altar.
Br. seems rather inclined to adopt the latter opinion,
for amongst the instanees he gives of royal inaugurations
Avhich have been performed in this fashion, he does not
mention those at which the Brahmans have received the
‘ limited’ gifts, but tells e. g. that Adamaija, the son of
Atri, promised to his priests ten thousand elephants and
ten thousand female slaves, and gave each of the sons of
that priest at the noon-oblation two thousand cows out of
a thousand millions ; that Anga gave his priest eighty-
thousand young white horses fit for carrying burdens on
their back, etc. ; that Bharata distributed in Maslmara
a hundred and seven thousand millions of black
elephants with white tusks, and decked with gold
etc. etc.”* In all this legendry of the Aitareya Brah-
mana of the Rig-Yeda, the Brahman, it must be admit-
ted, occupies a pretty high position.

The position of the Brahman is not of an humbler
character in the Taittlriya Brahmana, of the Black Yajur
Veda to which we now turn.

In this Brahmana, the three fundamental A'ryan
castes are mentioned in connexion with certain distinctive
privileges. Indra is there represented as assuming the
form of a Brdhman to carry off an Istika, or sacrificial
brick for the purpose of preventing two sacrificing Rak-
shasas, Kala and Kanj (afterwards called the heavenly

* See Golclstiicker’s Dictionary, Sanskrit and English, under
AhTiisheka.

160

WHAT CASTE IS.

hounds Urna ami NahJia), from succeeding in their ser-
vice and getting to heaven (suvarga). In connexion
with the same legend or fable, it thus enjoined : “ The
Bvdhman ought to commence bis sacrifice in the Vascm-
ta Ritu (or spring season). That season belongs to the
Brahman. Let him sacrifice in his own season, and he
becomes a Brahmavarchas, endowed with the knowdedge

of Brahma, and that season is the chief Let the Rdja-

nga sacrifice in the Grishina (hot season). Grishma is
the season of the Rajanya. Let him sacrifice in Grishma*
and he will become an Indrayavi (one powerful like
Indra). Let the Vaishya sacrifice in Shara (the
autumn). Shara is the season of the Vaishya.”* “ Let
the Brahman perform the fire sacrifice in the Gayatri
measure. The Gayatri measure is the Brahman’s. Each
has his own measure for the acquisition. The Trishtup

(measure) is that of the Rdjanya the Jagati is that of

the Vaisya.”'\ A Brdhman householder returning home
from a journey has to sacrifice in the nakshatraof Rohini.j:
The Brdhman is spoken of as of the elass of the gods, and
iheShudra as of that of the Asuras, Avhile quarrelling about
a skin ;§ and the Brahman gets the victory by means of
a particular mantra. The Vajapeya|| sacrifice Ijelongs

Taittari)’a Bnilimana, i. 1-2 (author’s MS.) See also edition of
ill Bib. Ind. p. 4.

t T. B. i. 1-9. Compare with this, p. 147, above.

t T. B. 1-1-10.

§ I : Taitti-

riya Brahmana, 1. 2. G.

II Fermentation of bread and water. Wilson’s S. Dictionary.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE BRAIIMANAS. 161

botli 1.0 the Brahman and the Rajanya* The Brahman,
endowed like the Rishi, has to stir up the sacrificial fire ;
“ for the Brahman is every divinity.”')' Higher elevation
than this it is difficult to imagine.

Social distinctions are mentioned, as in a passage from
the Taittiriya Sanliita already noticed.:}:

Some of the gods are viewed individually as the lords
of particular interests and classes of men. Agni is the
lord of food ; Soma is the king of the king (raja rdja-
pati) ; Vanina is the emperor of the emperor; Mitra is
the kshatrapaii oi the kshatra;^ Indra is the might of
tlie mighty ; Brihaspati is the Brahmapati of the Brah-
ma ; Savita is the Rashtrapati of the Rashtra ; Pii.dia is
the Vitpati of the Visha ; Sarasvati is the piishti-patnl
(mistress) of the pushti ; Tvashta is the former of the
pairs of beasts. ||

In a remarkable chapter of this Taittiriya Brahmana
(iii. 80), the parties of the Purusha Medha are mentioned,
(with variants) as in the thirtieth chapter of the White
Yajur Veda.^

* T. B. i. 3. 3.

t 1 mfrirn Taitt. Brah. i. 4.4.

Various other things are to be done by the Brahman in virtue of this
divine status. See the context,

J Taitt. Brah. 1. 7. 3. For the parties, see above, p. 124.

§ Mitra and Yaruna are thus addressed a little onwards : —

raiffvR Rrrurw tffRcru —

“ Thou art Mitra ; thou art Varuna, with the Vishv4-devas ; thou art
the navel of the Kshatra ; thou art the vulva of the Kshatra.” Tlie
Brahma is called the vulva of the Kshatra in T. B. iii. fob G8.

II Taitt. Brah. ii. 5-7. 1" See before, pp. 127-132.

16-2

WHAT CASTE IS.

Ill religious services, the Brahman has all the promi-
nence he can desire. “ If a goat be not found, then make
the Homa at the right hand of the Brahman. He is the
Vaishvanara (of men the universal) Agni ; if the Homa be
made upon the Brahman’s hand, it is as if made by Agni
himself.”* How different is the position of the 8hudra !
In the sacrifice of the Ashvamedha, “ The Shudra has
to watch the property ; so to a bastard (who is like a
Shudraj there is not the privilege of the abliisheka (or
ritual sprinkling.”)'!' If the Biahman acknowledges the
splendour of the prince, his own splendour is superior.
Wealth and rule do not remain with the Brahman ; rule
remains with the Kshatrij'a. The Brahman is of the
form of the day ; the Kshatriya is of the form of the
night. Let the Brahman perform the religious services
(ishlapurtta) of the Kshatriya. The Kshatriya should
rule. His glory is in war and battlej Consider these
demands, and yield this homage, and the Bryiman has
all that he can desire.

In the Shatapatha Brdhmana of the White Yajur Veda
of the Madliyandina Shakha, or Becension, the develop-
ment of the Caste System is apparent, much as in the
two Brfdimanas which we have just now noticed.

This work attributes the Collection of the White Yajur
Veda to the priest and teacher Ydjnavalkya, whose
alleged decision it holds to be authoritative. <§ In a
passage to which we have already referred, the Bdks/iasas

* Taitt. Br. iii. MS. fol. 59. f Taitt. Br. iii. MS. fol. 101.

X Tait Brail. MS. fol. 105.

§ Shatapatha Brahmaiia, i. 1. 9 (Weber p. 2) et in al. loc.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE BRAHMANAS, 163

are said to derive their designation from their being
proliibitors of sacrifice.* Vishnu (in the Rig- Veda, the
god of the brilliant firmament, or space) is, probably on
account of the ascent ol the sacrificial flame, called “ the
sacrifice,”t from which circumstance, certainly, he after-
wards received his pre-eminence among the gods, though
Savitd (the Sun) is in the context called “ the generator
of the gods,”J and Agni is in the Vedas the god of
sacrifice. Ceremonial impurity proceeding, during the
celebration of sacrificial rites, from (the touch of) a
Carpenter (Taksha) or any other sacrificielly impure
person, is represented as removed by the sprinkling of
the sacrificial water.§ Yet even at this time sacrifice
seems, in some of its relations at least, to have been
available for the Shudra, as brought to notice in a
passage which we have already quoted : — “ If the sacri-
fice!' be a Brahman, it is said EJd, Come ! If he is a
Vaishya, then it is Agahi, Come hither ! With a Rd-
janguh indhu [a transposition of the Vaishya and Rajanya
having occurred], it is Adrava, Run hither! With a
Shudra it is Adhava, Run hither” 1 1| While the sacri-

* Ib. i. 1. 16.

t Wr ^ Shat. Br. i. 1. 2. 13.

I Bfffrr ^ JTuriTr. ib. i. 2. 17.

§ Shat. Br. i. 1. 3. 12. This passage forms a key to the Caste
institution of sparslia, or defilement by contact. What occurred at
sacrifices, at -which parties were held to be ceremonially pm-e or
impure, was afterwards extended to what may occur in any circum-
stances in social life, to the debasement of large classes of the
community.

II Shat. Br. i. 1. 4. 11.

164

WHAT CASTE IS.

ficial stake (yupa) and rice-stirring instrument (sphya)
are appropriate to the Brdhman, the chariot and arrow
are appropriate to the Rajanya* The Brahman stands
forth as the arranger of sacrifice.f The spring is said to
be the season of sacrifice, for the Brahman; the summer
for the .EsAab-a; and the rainy season (rars/m) for the
Vita.:\. Of the mystical words prefixed to the Gayatri, the
Brdhman should pronounce the bhuh; the Kshatra, the
hhuvah; and the Visha, the svah.§ Indra and Agni
are sods of the Kshatra, and the Vishvedevas of the
y/s/ja.II Brihaspati is the god of the Brahmans.*^ The
power of the Kshatra is Yaruna.** That of the Visha
is the Maruta (company). In the Diksha, or sacrifice of
Initiation, the Brdhman, Bdjanya, and Vaishya, but not
the Shudra, may sacrifice.ff The Rdjanya and the
Vaishya are after the Diksha pronounced to be sacramen-
tally the same as the Brdhman, sprung from sacTifice.;|;:|:
The Brahman is encouraged to desire the work of the
forestander, the representative of every Kshatriya.§§

In the Savakanda of this Shatapatha Brahmana, there
is an important passage which, in connexion wnth the
Ai-anyoragni Samarohya (the sacrificial kindling of fire by
friction) brings to notice various classes of the community

* Shat. Br. i. 2. 4. 2.

t JTimiT : Shat. Br. i. 5. 1. 12.

t Shat. Br. ii. 1. 3. 5. § Shat. Br. ii. 1. 3. 4.

II Shat. Br. ii. 4. 3. 6. ^ Shat. Br. ii. 5. 2. 36., et. in al. loc.

** Shat. Br. v. 1. 1. 11., et. in al. loc.

-j-f- Shat. Br. iii. 1. 2. 10. Shat. Br. iii. 2. 1. 10.

§§ irr^TT ; Sh. Br. iv. 1. 4. 5.

ORIGIN OF CASTE-NOTICES IN THE BRAIIMANAS. 165

much as is done in a portion oftlie Black Yajnr Veda to
which we have already refeiTed.* The parties specified
in it are the Senani, the general, whose representative
god, in the offering of the prepared rice, is said to be
Agni ; the Purohita, or family priest, whose god is
Brihaspati, the “ Pimohita of the gods the Kshatra,
whose god is Indra ; the Mahish^, “ the chief wife of an
anointed king” according to Say ana A'charya, whose god
is A'ditya ; the Suta, or Charioteer, whose god is Varuna;
the Grdmani, the equivalent of the Visha,- whose god is
the Maruta (wind) ; the Kshatta, or lictor, whose god is
Savita, “^the generator of the gods”; the Sungrah'ita,
whom we have already supposed to be the treasurer, hut
whom Sayana makes a charioteer, whose deities are the
two Ashvius; the Bhdgadugha, or collector, whose deity is
Pusha, the nourishing sun ; the Aksliavapa, or superin-
tendent of the dice, whose god is Rudra; and the Palagala,
(who has not yet occiuTed), said by A'pastamba to be the
chief ambassador ; and the Parivritti, or wife without a
son."]' These parties are obviously principally those in
public offices, though they include the primitive sacrificial
castes.

The saciificial castes are, in the same section of the
Brahmana, represented as performing their sprinklings with
different trees. The Brahman takes the Palasha (Butea
frondosa) ; the Bajanya, the Nyagrodha (Ficus Indica) ;
and the Vaishya, the Ashvattha (Ficns religiosa).^ The

* See above, p. 124.

f Shat. Br. v. 2. 4. 12, et. seq. Weber, pp. 444-447 ; 487-8.

{ Shat. Br. v. 3. 2. 11, et. seq. p. 455. Other class distinctions
are mentioned in the context. See pp. 457, 460, 465, 503, 569,723.

166

WHAT CASTE IS.

multiplication of distinctions in every religious act and
ceremony seems to have been early an aim of the Indians.
In the same section also, it is said, “ There are foin- Castes
(Yarnas), tlie Brahman, Rajanya, Vahhya, and Shudni,
not one of whom there is that vomits the Soma.”* The
mention here of the Shudra shows, as in a passage already
quoted, f that, in a certain form at least, the Shudra,
though probably not a personal saciificer, was a participant
in the potable or edible material of sacrifice and its supposed
spiritual fruits.

In the eighth section of this Brahmana, a Rajanya,
who belonged to the province of Gandhai-a, to the south of
the Kabul affluent of the Indus, is thus brought to notice.
“ Further Svaijit, sou of Nagnajit said. Now Nagnajit
was a Gaiidhara. . . .This which he said, he spake as a mere
Rajauya.”:{: On this passage it is rightly remarked by Mr.

]\Iuir, that “although his (Svarjit’s) view (respecting breath
or life) was not regarded as authoritative, still the very fact
of its bemg quoted, and its author mentioned as a Rajanya,
proves his Arian origm.”§

In the thirteenth Kanda, in which the grand sacrifices
and distribution of enormous dakshina by several kings are
alluded to, verses 'are quoted in which both “ five classes
of men” (pancha manava) and “ seven classes of men”
(sapta manava) are alluded to. || These Pentads and
Heptads naturally bring to notice what is said in the
Veda of the Panchahshiti.*) Weber thinks that the Pentad

* Shat. Br. t See above, p. v. 5. 4. 9.

J ShatBr. viii. 1. 4. 10. § Muir’s Texts, ii. p. 366.

II Shat. Br. xiii. 3. 6. 14. and 23. Weber, p. 995-6.

See above, pp. 116-17.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE BRAIIMANAS. 1G7

refers to tlie Paiicluilas^ often mentioned (and supposed l)y
Iloth to be the five races of the Panjab) and the Heptad to
tlie Kurus and Panchyas- f

An important passage, in this Shatapatha Bralnnana,
corresponding Avitli tlie Vrihad A'ranjaka Upanishad, will
be noticed onwards. But before leaving this Biahmana
we may, turning back, refer to two notices, somervliat of a
bistorical character, which it contains, and which are quite
consistent with statements made in the commencement of
this section of our work.

In the first Kanda there is an account of a Deluge,
similar in some respects to that brought to notice in holy
writ, Avhich seems to indicate that the Hindus had a tradi-
tion of having crossed a great mountain chain on their
originally coming to India. This remarkable passage,
which has been translated by Weber,* Muller, f and Muir,;[:
is as follows: — “ They brought to Manu in the moniing
water for washing, as they are in the habit of bringing
water to wash with the hands. As he was using the water,
there came into his hands a fish which said to him,

‘ Preserve me and I will save thee.’ [Manu inquired]

‘ From what will thou save me’? [The fish replied] ‘A
flood shall sweep away all these creatures; I will rescue
Ihee from it.’ [Manu asked] ‘How is thy protection’ [to
be effected ?] The fish answered, ‘ So long as we are small,
we are in great peril, and even fish devours fish ; preserve

I See Note in Muir’s Texts i. pp. 135-6, and Weber’s Indisclie
Studion i. 200.

* Indische Stirdien, i. 163-164.

■j" History of A. S. Literature, p. 425, et. seq.

1 Sanskrit Texts, ii. p. 325-7.

168

WHAT CASTE IS.

me first in a jar. When I grow too large for tlie jar^
dig a trench, and preserve me in it. When I become too
great for that, carry me to the ocean; I shall then he beyond
the reach of danger.’ Straightway it became a great fisli ;
for it grew exceedingly. [The fish then said,] ^ In so
many years the flood will come, make a ship therefore,
and worship me; and when the flood rises embark on the
ship, and I shall deliver thee.’ Accordingly Mann pre-
served the fish, and brought it to the ocean ; and in the same
year which the fish had declared, he built a ship and worship-
ped [the fish]. When the flood ascended, he entered the
ship, and the fish swam near him : and he fastened the cable
of the ship to the fish’s horn. By this means he passed
over this northern mountain. The fish then said, ‘ 1 have
delivered thee, fasten the ship to a tree.’ But lest the water
should abandon thee when thou art upon the mountain, as
fast as the water subsides, so fast shalt thou descend alon<r

uith it. Accordingly he descended as the water subsided.
Hence, this was ‘ Manu’s descent’ from the northeni
mountain. The flood had swept away all creatures ;
!Mauu alone was left. Being desii-ous of offspring he
laboriously performed a religious rite. And there, too, he
sacrificed with the paka sacrifice. He cast clarified butter,
thickened milk, whey, and ciuxls, as an oblation into the
waters. After a year a female was produced, who rose
unctuous from the waters, with clarified butter under her
feet. Mitra and Varuna met her, and said to her, ‘ AYho art
thou ?’ ‘ Manu’s daughter,’ she replied. They rejoined,

‘ Say that thou art our daughter.’ She answered, ‘ No ;
I am the daughter of him who begot me.’ Then they
demanded a share in her. She promised, and she did not

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE BRAHMANAS. 169

promise ; bat passed on and came to Manu. Manu asked
her ‘ Who art thou?’ ‘Thy daughter,’ she replied. ‘ Noav,
thou divine one, art thou my daugliter ?’ he inquired. She
replied, ‘ Thou hast begotten me from these oblations
which thou didst cast into the Avaters. I am a benediction.
Introduce me at the sacrifice. If thou shalt do so, thou
shalt increase in offspring and cattle. AYliatever boon
thou shalt supplicate through me, shall accrue to thee.’
He accordingly introduced her in the middle of the sacri-
fice ; for that is tlie middle which stands between the
introductory and concluding prayers. He lived AAith her
worshipping and toiling, desirous of offspring. By her he
begot this offspring, which is the offspring of Manu.”* This
legend appears here in a much more simple form than it
does in the Mahabharata, Matsya Parana, or any of the
other Avorks of the later literature of the Hmdus. Next to
the references to the Uitcira (northern) Kurus, it is the
most important tradition known to the Indians respect-
ing their acquaintance with the north. These Kurus, of-
ten referred to by the Brahmans in conversation, are
brought to notice both in a geographical and mythical
form in the Indian literature. The oldest reference to
them occurs in the folloAving passage of the Aitareya
Brahmana: “Wherefore in this northern region, all the

people who dwell beyond the Himavat, the Uttara Kurus,
and the Uttara Madras, are consecrated to separate rule
(vairajya).”'!' In another passage of the same Avork, they
are spoken of as “the land of the gods (deva-kshetram),” of

* Muir’s Texts, ii. pp. 325-7.

f Ait. Brail, viii. 14. This passage Avas brought to notice by
Weber, Ind. Stud. i. 218.

170

WHAT CASTE IS.

which it is added, “ no mortal may conquer it.”* Other
allusions to them occur in the Ramayana,'|' Mahabharata,
etc. Ptolemy, too, speaks of a mountain and city called
Ottorokorra^'\, which must be referred to them. The
sanctit}’^ of this region in the eyes of the Hindus probably
originated in the respect felt for it as an early seat of at
least a branch of the A'ryan people. §

^ye find the following remarkable passage, also near
the commencement of this Brahmana (first brought
to notice by Dr. Weber ),|| referring to the advance of the
ATyas and the spread of their religious rites from the river
Sarasvati in an easterly direction : — “ Mathava the Vide-
gha^ bore Agni Vaishvanara in his mouth. The Rishi
Gotama Rahugana** was his priest (puroliita). Thougli
addressed by him he (Mathava) did not answer, ‘ lest (he
said) Agni (Fire) should escape from my mouth.’ The
priest began to invoke Agni with verses of the Rik : ‘ We
kindle thee at the sacrifice, O wise Agni, the sacrifice!’, the
luminous, the might}^ 0 Yidegha.’ (R. Y. v. 26. 3.) He
made no answer. (The priest then repeated,) ‘ Thy
bright, brilliant, flaming beams and rays mount upwards,
0 Agni, O Yidegha.’ (R. Y. viii. 44. 16.) Still he made no

* Ait. Brah. viii. 23.

t Ram. iv. 44.82. Mahabh. i. v. 4719*22. Vishnu Parana, p. 168.

t Ptol. Geo. vi. 16.

§ See on the Uttara Kurus, Lassen’s Ind. Altherthumskunde, i.
511-12 ; Zeitschrift fur die K. D. M. ii. 62 ; and Muir’s Texts, ii.
332-37.

II Indische Studien, i. 170.

^ “Afterwards prakritized to Videha” ?

** See R. V. i. 78. 5.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE 13RAHMANAS. 171

reply. (The priest then recited ;) ‘Thee, 0 dropper of
butter. Vie invoke,’ &c. (R. V. v. 26. 2.) So far he uttered ;
when immediately on the mention of butter (ghrita),
Agni Vaishvanara flashed forth from his mouth ; he could
not restrain him, so he issued from his mouth, and fell
down to this earth. The Videgha Mathava was then on
(or in) the Sarasvati. (Agni) then traversed this earth,
burning towards the east. Gotama Rahugana and the
Videgha Mathava followed after him as he burned onward.
He burnt across all these rivers ; but he did not burn
across the Sadanira, which descends from the northern
mountain (the Himalaya). The Brahmans formerly did
not use to cross this river, because it had not been burnt
across by Agni Vaishvanara. But now many Brahmans
(live) to the east of it. It used to he uninhabitable, and
swampy, being imtasted by Agni Vaishvanara. It is now,
however, habitable ; for Brahmans have caused it to be
tasted by sacrifices. In the end of summer this river is,
as it were, incensed, being still cold, not having been
burnt across by Agni Vaishvanara. The Videgha Ma-
thava spake; ‘Where shall I abide’? (Agni) replied,

‘ Thy abode (shall be) to the east of this (river). This
stream is even now the boundary of the Kosalas and Vide-
has; for they are the descendants of Mathava.’”* The
river Sadanira here mentioned is not identified ; but the
spread of the Aryan faith eastward from the Sarasvati,
one of its early seats in India, is certainly made obvious
by this somewhat figurative narrative.f

* Shat. Br. i. 4. 1. 10, et. seq.

I See oa its precise import, Weber in loc. cit. and Muir, ii. 419-422.

172

WHAT CASTE IS.

Notices somewhat similar to those now introduced from
the Aitareya, Taittinya, and Sl)atapatha Brdhmanas, may
possibly be found to some extent in the less important
Brahmanas. Dr. Weber considers the Shadvinsha Brah-
mana as having a “distinctly formed Brahmanical character,
indicating a not very early date.” The following passage
in it is referred to by Dr. Weber and Mr. Muir : “ Indra

declared the ulctha (recited hymn) to Vishvamitra [the
Rdjanya said to have attained to Brdhmanhood], and the
Brahma (sacrificial knowledge) to Vasishtha [originally
a Brdhman] ; — the uldha, wliicli is speech, to Vishvdmi-
tra, and the Brahma, which is mental, to Vasishtha.” The
object of this is e^ddentlv to (pialify the effects of the
acknowledged transition of Vishvdmitra to the priesthood —
an admission always felt to be awkward by the supporters
of Caste ; for it is added, “ Hence this brahma belongs to
the Vasishthas. Moreover, let a descendant of Vasishtha,
who is acquainted with it, be appointed Brahma."* The
Gopatha Brahmana deals with the ritual of the Atharvas
of the fourth Veda, in which Brdhnianism, though in a
sectarian form, is conspicuously dominant.')' J t even derives
its ideal of the Creator from Athai’van.;|;

3 From the Brahmanas, we proceed to the A'raayakas
(Discourses of the Forest) and Upanishads, (Discourses to

* See Weber’s Indiscbe Studien (i. 36-39) and Muir’s Texts (i. 79)
on the Shadvinsha.

t The MSS. of this Brahmana are extremely rare. I have just
heard of one having fallen into the hands of Dr. Haug at Puna as this
passes through the press.

See Hist, of A. Sans. Lit. by Dr. Max Muller, p. 451.

ORIGIN OF CASTE- NOTICES IN THE A'RANYAKAS. 173

Near-Sitters)* which are closely connected together. The
oldest of these works, speaking generally, represent the spe-
culative thonght of India in the ages immediately posterior
to those of the Bralimanas, and in after times. Some of
them, however, like the Vrihad (or Brihad) A'ranyaka
UjHndshad, which is mostly written in the name of Yajna-
valkya, and finds a place at the end of the Shatapatha Bi ah-
mana (also attributed to that famous teacher) may be of
the same age as that work. Their philosophical character
confers a peculiar value on their brief references to the
social state of the ancient Indians, although these references
are often of a constrictive character, founded on the desire
of their authors to uphold the doctiiue of spiritual pan-
theism (that of the universality and identity of Brahma,
viewed not as religious service but as its object and the

* The great commentator Shankara A'charya views Upanishad as
equivalent to Annihilator. In his introduction to the Brihad A'ran-
yaka Upanishad, he writes thus : “ ‘ The dawn is the head of the

sacrificial horse’ [the name of this A'ranyaka derived from its first
words] is composed for the sake of those who wish to liberate them-
selves from the world, in order that they may acquire the knowledge
that Brahma [here used not in the \ edic sense of religious service
but the Spirit to whom this brahma is directed] and the soul are the
same, akno’.vledge by which the liberation from the cause of the world
(ignorance) is accomplished. The world is accomplished. This know-
ledge of Brahma is called Upam'diad, because it completely annihilates
the [essential reality of] the world, together with its cause in such as
possess this knowledge ; for this is the meaning of the word Sad, (to
destroy or to go) preceded by Upani (quasi, near and ni, certainly).
A work which treats of the same knowledge is called Upanishad."
Eoer’s Trans, of Br. Ar. Up. p. 1. Dr. Jlax Muller, with more correct
philological appreciation, shows that up -p sad is used “ in the sense of
sitting and worshipping.” Hist, of A. S. Lit. p. 318.

174

WHAT CASTE IS.

object of the contemplation of the wise), for the support of
w'liicli they have evidently been composed.*

From the Briliad (or Vrihad) Aranyaka Upani.?liad we
take the following notices : —

“ Brahma verily was this before, one alone. Being one,
he did not extend. He with concentrated power created
the Kshatra of elevated nature, viz., all those Kshatras
who are protectors among the gods, Indra, Varuna, Soma,
Riidra, Paijanya, Yama, Death, and Ishaiia. Therefore
none is greater than the Kshatra ; therefore the Brahman
under the Kshatriya, worshijis at the Rajasuya ceremony.
The Kshatra alone gives (him) his glory. Brahma is thus
the birth-place of the Kshatra. Therefore although tlie
king obtains the highest dignity, he at last takes refuge in the
Brahma as in his birth-place. Whosoever despises him,
he destroys his birth-place. He is a very great sinner,
like a man who injures a superior. He did not extend.
He created the Vit. He is all those gods who, according
to then- classes, are called Vasus, Riidras, A'dityas, Yish-
vedevas, and Maruts. He did not extend. He created
the caste of the Shudras as the nourisher. Tliis (earth) is
the nourisher ; for it nourishes all this whatsoever. He
did not extend j he created with concentrated power justice
of eminent nature. This justice is the preserver (Ksliatra)

* Sliankara A' chary a says, “ The knowledge of the identity of
Brahma [in all forms] is the certain meaning of the Upanishads in
all the Shakhas.” Ruer’s Trans, of B. A. U., p. 1 07. Seeking a Vedic
support, the Upanishads found much on a few expressions contained in
some of the later Suktas, such as that attributed to the God Incira by
Vamadeva, in which he says, “ I was Manu, I am the Sun.” See
on this and similar expressions of the Veda, Author’s India Three
Thousand Years Ago, p. 76.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE A'RANYAKAS. 175

of the Kshatra. There is nought higher than justice.
Even the weak is confident to defeat the more powerful
by justice, as (a householder) by the king. Verily justice
is true. Therefore they say of a person who speaks the
truth, he speaks justice, or of a person who speaks justice^
lie speaks the truth. In this manner verily it is both.
This is the creation of the Bramha, the Kshatra, the Vit,
and the Shudra. He was in the form of Agni (fire)
among; the Gods as Brahma, he was the Bramhan among
men, in the form of Kshatriya Kshatriya, in the form of
Vaishya Vaishya, in the form of Shudra Shudra., Therefore
among the gods the place (loka) is desired through Agni
only; among men through the Brahman, because in their
forms Bramha became (manifest).”* The Kshatra, the
Brahma, the Vit, and the Shudra are here alike consid-
ered the positive creations of Brahma (now used in a new
sense. Care, however, is taken that by this view of mat-
ters, the Brahman shall not be disparaged, the Kshatra
at last taking refuge in the Brahma as his birth-place.
The Shudra (a partial etymological reference being made
to the first syllable of the name) is here viewed as the
nourisher ; but he is still the lowest in the scale : “ He

(Brahma) w^as in the form of Agni among the gods as
Brahma ; he was the Brahman among men ; in the
form of Kshatriya, Kshatriya ; in the form of Vaishya,
Vaishya; in the form of Shudra, Shudra.” This doctrine

* This is the accurate translation of Dr. Rber (p. 121-5). For “ he
did not extend,” it might an improvement to say, “ He did not sepa-
rate, or multiply,” the original being H ^ The passage occurs

in the Vphad Ar. Up. i. 4 and in the Shatapatha Brah. xiv. 4. 2. 23.
p. 1052 in Weber’s edition.

176

WHAT CASTE IS.

Shankara A'chdrya does not fail to turn to account :
“ Among men the place, the effect of works, is desired
through the nature of the Brahman alone, because
Brahma,’ the creator, ‘ in their forms,’ of the Brahman and
Agni, the forms upon which the agents of work are
dependent, ‘ became manifest’ ”*

“ It verily goes against the grain that a Brahman should
approach a Kshatriya for the purpose of learning Brahma
from him.” These words are doubtless put by a Brahman
into the mouth of Ajatshatru, “ king of Kashi,” when he
is represented as instmcting “ Gargya, the proud son of
Balaka.”t

“0 Matreyi, said Yajnavalkya (to his wife), behold,
I am desmous of raising myself from the order, therefore
let me divide (my property) between thee and KaB ayani
there.” J Here Yajnavalkya desires to leave his aslirama of
Householder for that of a Sannydsi. The orders, after-
wards spoken of by Manu,^ are here recognized. They
are also brought to notice in the following passage, which
teaches that the mendicant and meditative life is preferable
to that of parties followuig the coin’se of the world.
“Then asked him (Yajnavalkya) Kahola,the son of Kuslii-
taka, — Yajnavalkya, do explain to me that Brahma, who
is a witness and present that soul which is Anthin every
(being).” “ It is thy soul which is within every being.”
“ It is the soul which conquers hunger, thirst, grief, delu-
sion, old age, (and) death. When Brahmans know this soul,
then elevating themselves from the desire of obtaining a son,

* Eder’s Trans, of Vrihad A' ran. Up. p. 125.

Ib. p. 172. f tb. p. 177.

§ See above, p. 27-35.

ORIGIN OF CASTE-NOTICES IN THE A'RANYAKAS. 177

from the desire of wealth, and from the desire of gaining
the worlds (above), they lead the life of wandeiing mendi-
cants J for the desire of a son is also the desire for wealth
(to perform rites) ; the desne for wealth is also the desne
for the worlds ; for even both are desires. Therefore
knowing wisdom let the Brahman (the student of Brahma)
arm himself with strength.”* It is afterwards added,
“ Wlioever knowmg this indestructible [being] departs from
this world, O Gargi, is a (true) Brahman.”f

In the fourth Kanda of the work before us, it is said
that Yajnavalkya was offered, at every illustrative story
which he repeated, “ a thousand cows big as elephants,” by
Janaka king of Videha. His uniform reply was, “ My
father admonished me, where one does not instruct, one
should not take (gifts). The Brahmans, in the time of the
liaw-Books, demanded gifts from Kshatryas and Vaish-
yas without service, and taught that their free bestowment
on the priestly caste was meritorious.^ In the same Kanda,
(and of Purusha, or Soul, in a certain state of abstraction),
it is said, “ The murderer of a Brahman is no Brahman;
the Chandala is no Chandala, the Paulkasa no Paulkasa,
the religious mendicant (Sramana) no religious mendi-
cant ; the ascetic, no ascetic ; he is unconnected with all
that is holy, he is unconnected with sin.” This freedom
from sin is afterwards attributed to the party possessed of

* Brihad Ar. Up. iii. 5. Roer’s Trans, p. 196-197.

t Ib. p. 204.

f Ib. 213 et seq. On another occasion, Janaka is represented as
saying to his teacher, “ I bow to thee ; let this kingdom of the
Vid^has and this myself be thine.” Ib. p. 219.

§ See above, pp. 17, 26, etc.

178

WHAT CASTE IS.

the knowledge of Brahma.* The Paulkasa and Chandala
have already occurred, in the Purusha Medha.f All
offensiveness in them and all pre-eminence in others, it
is insinuated, vanishes from the view of the knower of
Brahma, The principle here involved, as the teaching-
goes, is of general application. “ The Brahma sliould
disown a person, who considers the Brahma (caste) as
something different from his (self) ; the Kshatra should
disown a person, who considers the Kshatra (caste) as some-
thing from (his) self ; the world should disown a person
who considers the world as something different from (his)
self.” J That there was some novelty in this pantheistic
and anti-vedic teaching; was admitted : “ That this know-
ledge in former times was not possessed by a Brahman
(thou knowest thyself), but I will explain it to thee.”§
it was, generally speaking, not reduced to practice in
society, the Indian speculatists preferring unnatural ac-
commodations to the ancient literature and ritual of the
country to the setting themselves forth as distinct and
marked reformers.

In the Chhdndoyya Upanishad, associated with the
8ama Veda,— a portion of which agrees with the Brihad
A'ranyaka Upanishad, 1| and which may consecjuently h
supposed to he somewhat connected Avith it in time,— Ave
find a certain kind of scrupulosity as to food brought to
notice. “Ushashti, son of Chakra Avho had forsaken Kuru

* Ib. pp. 228, 241. See above, pp. 131-2.

t Ib. p. 243-4. § Ib. p. 263.

II Brihad Aranyalca Upanishad, vi. 2 seq.=(with the modification
ot some words) Chhaud. v. 3-10. See liuer’s Trans, of Br. Ar.
Up. p. 261.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE UPANISHADAS. 179

mth his wife lived in great distress in Ihhyagrama (the
village of an elej^hant driver). Of the elephant-keeper
eating some Kulmasha (a coarse bean) he begged (food).
He (the elephant-keeper) said, ‘I have nothing but what
yon see before me.’ ‘ Give me of it,’ said he. He gave
him of it, and ofl’ered him some drink. ‘Were I (he said) .
to take that, I shonld swallow the remnant of another’s
drink.’ ‘ Is not that also [the beans] a remnant V ‘ I
cannot live nithoiit eating that ; hut drink I can command
at pleasure.’ Having ate thereof, he presented the remain-
der to his wife. She had before partaken of the same,
and [therefore] took it and laid it by. On the morning,
rising from his bed, he exclaimed, ‘ Alas, if I could obtain
a little food, I could earn some wealth. A king is sacri-
ficing in the neighbourhood, he would surely employ me
to perform all his functions.’ His wife said to him, Here
are the beans, (take them.) and eating of them go quickly
to the sacrifice.”* Hunger is here made the excuse for
eating the coarse provisions of a man of lower grade, while
the drinking of his water, for which an excuse was not
readily forthcoming, is avoided. The scrupulosity indi-
cated seems to have had principally in view the preserva-
tion of status, which was really the aim of many subsequent
caste regulations. A microscopic view of gi'adations, and
supposed degradations connected with them, was soon taken
by the Indians. In this same Upanishad, the bnth of the
Chandala follows that of dogs and swine, though it resolves
them all into Brahma himself. f

* Clihand. Up. (Bib. Ind.) i. 10, p. 80, et seq. and Rajendralal’s
Trans, pp. 27-28.

f Chhand. Up. v. 10. (p. 35G).

180

WHAT CASTE IS.

Little is to be found bearing on our subject in the older
Minor Upanishads.

In the Taittariya Upanishad, which forms a portion of
the Taittariya ATanyaka of the Black Yajur-Veda (chap-
ters 7-9,) and which is also found in the collection of the
Uj)ani.?hads of the Atharva Veda*, — the following passage,
which forms a key to the limited respect paid by the followers
of the Upani.shads to the gods, forefathers, relatives,
teachers. Brahmans, etc.,occm-s : — “ Let there be no neglect
of the duties towards the gods and the forefathers. Let
the mother he a god (to thee). Let the father be a god
(to thee). All unblameahle works ought to be performed —
not any other. All the praiseworthy doings of us (the
teachers) ought to be respected by thee — not any others.
The Brahmans who are better than we, it ought to be thy
effort to provide with a seat.” “ Then,” “ as there (in thy
neighboui’hood) all the Brahmans, who are of sober judg-
ment,— who are meek and desirous of performing then-
duties, — whether they act by themselves or be appointed
by another, — as such Brahmans act among them, so also
act thou among them.”f All this is by way of accom-
modation.” “ The Upani.shads,” as Dr. Roer correctly
says, “ acknowledge the gods of the Vedas in name [and
the same remark is aiiplicable to the distinctions among
men], but not in reality ; for their whole nature is altered,
since from the state of divinity they are degraded to beings
of an inferior order. ”;jl They are recognized only as

* See Translation of Taittiriya, etc. by Dr. Roth. 1 i.

I Tait. Up. Shiksha Valli, An. xi. Rder, pp. 13-14.

f Introduction to Taitt. Up. p. 7.

ORIGIN OF CASTE-NOTICES IN THE UPANISHADAS. 181

manifestations in finity of the infinite — the vSupreme Self.
“ The Vedanta (the more orthodox system of the Upani-
shads),” Dr. Rcier coiTectly adds, in another place, “ also
maintained that the acquisition of truth is independent of
caste or any other distinction, and that the highest know-
ledge which is the chief end of man, cannot be imparted
by the Vedas ; yet it insisted that a knowledge of the
V edas was necessary to prepare the mind for the highest
knowledge.”* It was by this fictitious deference to the
Vedas that the supporters of the Vedanta, while in reality
superseding these works, conciliated their orthodox friends.
The less orthodox schools, as the Sankhya, acted a more
independent part, if we except, perhaps, the founder of that
school. Dr. Max Muller thus writes : — “ Kapila, an athe-
istic philosopher of the purest water, was tolerated by
the Brahmans, because, however he differed from their
theology, he was ready to sign the most important
article of their faith — the divine origin and infallibility
of scripture. ”f But their tenets, as bearing on our
subject, we may afterwards notice in connexion with the
relations of Buddhism to Caste.

In the Prashna Upanishad, the Kshatra (as the power)
and the Brahma (as the orderer of rites) are represented
as founded on life, or Prajapati, of whom, it is said,
“ Thou art a Vrdtya,”1^ (as a non-initiated Brahman) —
holy by nature, there having been none to perform the

* Introd. to Svetashavatara Up. p. 36.

t Review of Muir’s Text in Times, 10th April, 1858.

f Prasli. Up. ii. 6. 11. Vratya literally means one of the mul-
titude.

182

WHAT CASTE IS.

rites in tliy behalf. In this Upanishad, the Vedanta doc-
trine scarcely appears in a definite form.

4. We conclude this long section of our -work by
referring to the Siitras, the last class of the Vedic works
so-called, — -which form a connecting link between the
Brahmanas and the Law-Books comprehended under the
name of Smr'iti, or Remembering,

The Sutras are written generally in the form of brief
jNIemorial Aphorisms, as indicated by their name of Siitra
or Thread. Dr. Max Muller makes them range between
the 5’ears 600 — 200 before Christ. They glean much
from the Vedas and the Brahmanas ; but it is only
in so far as they give a legal form to incidental notices
which occur in tlie older works, and make allusions to
written laws and interpretations that they are of much
use.

“ The}’- contain the quintessence,” Dr. Muller says,
“ of all the knowledge which the Brahmans had accumu-
lated during many centuries of study and meditation.”*
They are based upon the Shruti (comprehending the
Vedic hymns and the Brahmanas)t ; and, in some instances
are on this account called the Shrauta Sutras. Those of
them which teach the mode of performing the Vedic

* Hist of A. Sans Lit. p. 74.

f Dr. Muller (ib. p. 7C) ingeniously says, “ The reason why the
Brahmanas, which are evidently so much more modern than the
Mantras, were allowed to participate in the name of Shruti, could only
have been because it was from these theological compositions, and not
from the simple old poetry of the hymns, that a supposed divine
authority could be derived from the greater number of the ambitious
claims of the Brahmans.”

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE SUTRAS. 183

sacrifices are callled Kalpa SiUras ; and even tlie Brah-
mans themselves, such as Kumarila, admit that, though
authoritative, they are “ composed, by human authors,”
“like Mashaka, Baudhayana, Apastaraba, A'slivalayana,
Katyayana and others.”* They are to be distinguished from
the Smdrtta Sutras, the Siitras of the Smriti, or the Sutras
of Tradition, which form the Law Books- Varieties of
them are the Gnhya Siitras, which treat of rites to be
performed by householders, principally for the benefit
of their families; and the Sdmayacharika Sutras, which
regulate rites to be performed by individuals on their own
account, and the religious services of everyday life.f

The most important of the Sutras to which the public
has access are “ The Shrautastitras of Katyayana, with
Extracts from the Commentaries of Karka and Yajnika-
deva,” published by the learned and indefatigable Dr.
Weber, as the third volume of the text of the White
Yajur Veda and its adjuncts.

In the Sutras now referred to the Slmdra is plainly
declared not to have the right (adhikdra) of sacrifice
enjoyed by the Brahman, Kshatriya, and Vaishya. In
support of this dictum, some quotations are made from
the Brahmanas which we have already introduced. It is
then found that the Shudra is not to be invested with the
sacred string, and has not, like the higher Varnas, the
right of hearing, committing to memory, or reciting
Vedic texts. For listening to these texts he ought to have
his ears shut up with lead or lac, by way of punishment ; for
pronouncing them, his tongue cut out; and for committing

* Hist, of A. S. Lit. pp. 97-8.

f See Muller, p. 200, etc.

184

WHAT CASTE IS.

them to memory, his body cut in two.* The Rathakdra is
somewhat more favoured, as far as his presence at the
ddhdna, or initial services of sacrifices, is concerned ;t and
tliisit is said is owing to the distinction of his employment
for a livelihood, and because it is said, “ A Mahishya is
produced by a Kshatriya on a female- Vaishj^a ; a Karani
is produced by a Vaishya on a iem^le-Shiidra ; and a Ra-
thakdra is produced by Mahishya on a female. Karani.”
This brings us to the fictional views of the Law-Books. J
Chiefs of the Nishddas have the privilege of offering
the boiled seeds of the Gavedhuka (coix barbata) on
the occasion of hallowing a new hoase.§ Of the Vaishya
and Rdjanya, it is held that they are not entitled to
keep burning the sacred fire garhapati, or that of a house-
holder, which is the privilege of the Rrdkman.\\ In select-
ing Brdhmans for services, as connected witli the nuptial
fire, reference must be made to the families which repre-
sent the respective Rishis to which the Vedic texts are
said to have been communicated. This the commen-
tary couples with the recognitions of shdkhdntara, differ-
ence in the Branch or School of the ministrant.^

* 511^7 fTrar ^Tirgufr

g-^iT'T rsT'frd?; itrtvr ^ Shrautasutra Kdt.

i. 1. 6. (p. 9).

f lb. i. 1. 9. et seq.

J See above, pp. 53, 60, 65.

§ Slirautasutras of Kat. i. 1. 12. (p. 16).

II Ib. i. 6. 16, p. 110.

Ib. V. 6. 1, p. 367. See also x. 9. 30, pp. 832-3.

ORIGIN or CASTE— NOTICES IN THE StlTRAS. 185

In the Bandhdynna Siitras of the Black Yajur Veda,*
we have found several passages worthy of notice.

“The Bridimans acting as Ritvijes,” it is enjoined,
“ ought to be perfect in birth, associational lineage
((/olra), instruction (shriita), and conduct, without fault of
body, without scar, not addicted to going beyond the fences
(of their town), not goers to the Antyaja (those of low
birth, dwelling beyond the enclosures of towns), not pro-
nomicersofhdleya-vdleya (that is, not of vulgarized speech),
having sons and daughters onl}’- of regular birth, having
no connection with strange women or women found with
child at their marriage, not (themselves) posterior in birth,
not adopted. The Adhvar}ui ought to be of the Angiras
(order) ; the Brahma of the Vasishtha ; the Hota, of the
Vishvainitra ; and the Udgata, of the Kushika.f It is also
said by some that the Sadasya (superintending priest)
should be of Vasishtha, of Bhrign, or of Angiras, right in
birth, learning, and conduct.’’^

The institutor of a sacrifice is represented as connecting,
in supplicatory transference, robbery with the Vvdtya
and t'iMdra; labour, with the Vaishya ; knowledge, with
the Rajanyahandhu ; Brahmacide, with the Nishada ;

* For the use of a MS. of these Sutras I am indebted to Sadashiva
Bhatta of Wui, next to Mahabaleshwar, the highest ti’rtha (sacred
place of passage) of the Krishna river. These Siitras derive their
name from Baudhiiyana, their collector and arranger.

•}• The classes of priests specified are those who take the different
parts of the sacrificial rites. See before, p. 102.

:j; Baudhayana Sutras, Prashna ii. 2. (fob 19 of MS.) The pas-
sage goes on to say that the officiating priests should have no imperfec-
tion of body, etc.

18G

WHAT CASTE IS.

})aradise (voclas), with the Kimpurusha (dwellers in the
X. E. mountains), barbarous speech (mlechha), with the
residents in forests ; repose, with the Videhas; the takman
(disease) with the Mu j avals f cough, with the Dundu-
hhas ; bile, with the IkshvciKiis ; preparation for sacrifice,
with Kalinga (a country contiguous to the sources of the
Ganges), and so forth. f

The Mantras to be used respectively by Brahmans,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Rathakaras, at the adJidna are
expressly prescribed.;}: The Chandas, or Metres to be used
by the three first of these classes are mentioned as in the
Brabmanas.§ The Munja or sacred string of the loins||
of the Brahman learning the Vedas, it is said, should
be of the Darbha grass ; and of the Vaishja, of the hair
of the black antelope.^

In the HiranyakesJu Sutras, — with the use of an old
manuscript of which I have been kindl}^ favoured by
Tathya Shastri Abhjmnkara of \Vai, — we have found
several curious passages, also bearing on the progress of
Caste arrangements.

Ill one of them, after it is said that the Braliman,
Rajanya, and Vaishya have the Vedddhyana, or liberty
of repeating the Vedas, it is added that their sacrifices
are established in the Brahman, because all the sacrifices
are not forbidden to him, that is, he has a right to

See before, p. 141. f Baudli. Sutras, ii. 2.

I Baudh. Slit. ii. 17. § lb. vi. 13.

II The Munja is to be distinguished from the string worn over the
right shoulder. The period for which the Munja is to be worn is
mentioned onwards.

Ih.

ORIGIN OF CASTE-NOTICES IN THE SUTRAS, 187

perform every Iclnd of sacrifice, Avliile the others have not
this right. It is also added that the llajanya and Vaishya
have the privilege of the (daily) Agnihotra and of the
ceremonies of the new and full moon, while the JBnih-
maus alone have the privilege of the Soma sacrifice ; and
that the Nislidda and the Rathakdra have the privilege
of the ddhdna (initial ceremonies) of the Agnihotra of
the new and full moon ceremonies.* In conformity with
the dicta of the Brahmanas, the Vasanta season is the
adhan time of the Bj'dhman ; the Gii?hma and Hemanta,
of the Rdjanya ; the Varsha of the RatliaVara ; and the
Sharad, of the Vaishya; while the Shishira is common
to them all.f Special mantras are prescribed, as in the
Baudhayana Sutras for these four castes.| The horse for
the Ashvamedha sacrifice, as found suitable, may he
brought from the house of a Brahman, a Rajanya, or
a Vaishya, as the case may be.§ The portion in sacrifice
which falls to the institutor of the sacrifice (VajarnanaJ
is to be ate by the Brahman, but not by the Rdjanya or
the Vaishya. Silence is to be observed by partiesof
the three sacrificial classes, when a Shudra enters to
remove their natural defilements (alluded to with dis-
gusting particularity) ; and thus the servile position of
the Shudra is recognized.^ The sun is addressed as the

iTfUr R RqKIT- Hiranyakeshi Sutras, iii. 1.

I Ib. iii. 2. J Ib. iii. 3.

§ Ib. iii. 4. II Hir. Sut. vi. 4.

Hir. Sii. X. 1.

188

WHAT CASTE IS.

Cliaram (Brahman association), as the Shhclra, and as
the A'rya (probably here meaning’ the Kajanya and the
Vaishya).* A Shudra or A'rya desiring the skin of an
animal slain in sacrifice is to receive it from the Agmdhra
Brahman, separating’ himself from the sacrificial party
by a circle surrounding the sacrificial pit- |' In the
Agni.shtoma sacrifice, the Ni.diada, as well as the Valshya,
and Rajanya, may three times drink, from an earthen
vessel, of the juice of the roots of the Udambara (Ficus
g’lomerata), while a Brahman has to drink of it onl}^ once.j:

The sections from the nineteenth to the twenty-fifth
inclusive are in the manuscript in our hands denominated
the Iliranyalceshi Smdrtta Si'ilras, — a denomination in
which their traditional character is recognized, the Shranta
Sutras being more directly founded on the Vedic works
comprehended under the name of S/intti (“ what was
heard”) in regular Vedic recitation”). In theii’ com-
mencement, it is intimated that the Upanayana (or sacri-
ficial endowment with the string) of a Brahman shmdd
take place in his seventh year j that of a Rajanya, in his
eleventh ; and that of a Vaishya, in his twelfth. The sea-
sons for this sacrament, in the case of each of these classes,
are mentioned as already noted by’ us on the authority of
other works. The ceremonial, in its difl’erent particulars,
is prescribed. It ought to be performed during the first part
of the lunar mansion (nakshatra) Puna. A couple of Brah-

* Hir. Su. X. 4. t Ilir. Sil. xvi. 1.

t nil’, Su. xvii. 1. It is because the roots of this fig yield a watery
juice that it is called the “ water-tree” by the natives of India, and not
as “ being found (as some of our botanists tell us) near springs or
water courses.”

OraGIN OF CASTE-NOTICES IN THE SUTEAS. 189

mans are to be feasted ; the Pimyalia mantra is to be re-
peated; tbevoutb is to be sbaved (in tlie bead) and de-
corated ; tlie household fires have to be kindled in their re-
spective positions ; the Darbha grass (Poa eynosnroides)
has to be scattered around them ; and the articles required
for use — the stone, the unwashed (new) clothing, the skin of
a deer, etc., the miuija (or temporary stiing) three times to
circumvent the loins, the rod of theBelva (iBgle marmelos),
or of the Palasha (Butea frondosa) for the Brahman, of the
Nagrodha (Ficus Indica) for the I vdjanya, and the Udumbara
(Ficus glomerata) for the Vaishya, the fuel of twenty-one
kinds of wood, the frame of wood (to put on each side of the
fire pits), the blowpipe, theDarvi (clarified-butter spoon), the
bunch of Darbha grass, and the cup for the clarified-butter,
are to be put into their places. The sacred fire is to
be kindled (for the consumption,) in the homa rite, of the
fuel and the clarified butter. The sacred thread has to
be put over the shoulder of the candidate for initiation ;
the miiiija has to be put round the loins ; the mantras have
to be repeated by the Brahmans, and taught to the party
now initiated by them ; and the youth has to be blessed in
varied forms. Clothing has to be given to him according to
Ins caste : — the skin of a black antelope to the Brahman ;
the raurava (skin of a common antelope) to the Rajanya ;
and the skin of a goat to the Vaishya. Specified mantras,
varied according to caste, have to be repeated by the initiated.
Dakshina (douceurs Avith the right or lucky hand*) are

* On one occasion, when I happened to be walking round one of the
lingdlayas at Elephanta with my left hand towards the quondam object
of worship, a Brahman of the old school, interested in my safety,
attempted to put me into the right position that I might escape injury !

190

WHAT CASTE IS.

to be given to Brahmans.* No symbolical meaning seems
associated Anth the complicated service.

In the dan-ihoma (burnt offering effected simply by
casting butter, etc. into the ffame -uitli a ladle), the Brah-
man’s prepared dish {mantha) is to be of clarified butter;
the Kshatriya’s, of milk ; the Vaish}m’s, of whey ; and the
Shudra’s, of water, f

The twenty -sixth and tAventy-seventh sections of the
Sutras of Hiranvakeshi are called Sdmaydchdrika or
Dhurma Sutras, that is Sutras for regulating conventional
practices and duties, vieAA'ed as incumbent on indiA'iduals,
independently of the great ceremonial services.

This division of the Avork sets out with the mention of
the four primitive castes, Avhich it says are recognized by
the Vedas. The investiture Avilh the string, the reading
of the Vedas, and the keeping of the sacred fire are
“ fruitless works” for the Shudra, aaIiosc duty is serAuce.
Seasons of sacrifice are prescribed for the three first castes
(but not for the fourth). The three first classes should,
after initiation, spend at least twelve years as students
(Brahmacharis), Avith their A'charya, or religious instruc-

* Hiranyakeshi Slit. xix. 1 et seq.

•j" Ib. xxiii. 10.

1 The commencement of t he Hiranyakeshi Samayachai'ika Sutras is
the following : aiilffT: -cq-JlR siRirr^rjir TITR

: — NoAV-iu-what-follows Ave unfold the conventional practices and
duties, the authority (being) the intelligent in conventionalities (and)
the Yedas. “ Samayacharika’’ (says Ilaridatta, as quoted by Muller,
Hist, of A. S. p. 101) is derived from sarnaya (agreement) and dclidra

(custom) Rules founded Aipon sarnaya are called samayacharas,

from Avhich (is) the adjecti\'e sdmayaclidrilca In our Siitra, Dharina

means laAv.”

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE SUTRAS. 191

lor.* The pronoun (of rcspecl) is to be used wlien the
wife of a Brahman is addressed ; while those of a Eajanya
and Vaishya may he mentioned with their hare names.']'
The Brahmachari should not enter on the employment of the
merchant, or shopkeeper. He should abstain from imjjure
works, such as holding intercourse with Shudras, forming
connections with non-ATyau women, eatuig forbidden flesh,
drinking urine and fceces, touching the vessel rendered impure
by the leavings of a Shudi’a or of an A'rya.| The Brahman
who goes to a Kshatrya woman should give a thousand
cows or bullocks for an atonement ; to a Vaishya woman,
a liuiub’ed ; and to a Shudra woman, ten. The offending
woman is to he banished to the wilderness.^ The Brahma-
chari is not to carry arms ; but if any person come upon him
with intent to kill him, he may use a sword (or any other
weapon) at haud.||

After marriage, when the Brahman enters into the
ashrama of a Householder, his first duty is performing
t\\e sthdlipaka — the dressing rice for the homa, or domestic
sacrifice, on the day previous to which he has to dine only
once and to abstain from his couch, sleeping on the
oTOund, and afterwards to conduct life in the most cere-
monious manner. When he has erected an altar of clay
and drawn upon it three lines from East to West and
three from North to South, he has to sjninkle water upon
it, and to throw away the remainder, partly to the North

* Ilir. Su xsvi. 1. (Prashna i. of Sam. Dh. Siit.)

f Ib. xxvi 4. 1 Ib. xxvi. G.

§ ilFTT Ipir R'Tf 5TT cT?! STf

Ib. H Ib. xxvi. 7.

102

WriAT CASTE IS.

and partly to the East. Other rites are to l)e performed
by him according to the principle, that great happi-
ness is to be o))tained by each Varna following its
own established rites ;* while if the contrary is the case,
misery will be the consecpience, the Brahman being born
a Chandala, the Bdjamja a Paidkasa, and the Vaishya
a Vena. It is added, that the occurrence of dosha (or fault)
follows the contact, and conversation with, or look at, a
Chandala. The atonement for a Brahman speaking with
or touching such a low person is bathing, and for looking
at him, the actual viewing of light (as of the sun). The
ATyas (the three higher Varnas) have to make offerings to
the Yishvedevas (all the gods); and the Shudras have to do
the same, day after day, making three sips. The hairs of the
body (of three kinds) have to be shaved on the eighth and
fifteenth days of the month, when water is to be touched.
On the arrival of a learned Brahman, he ought to be
seated and fed ; while a Rdjanya and Vaishya arriving
should only be saluted. If a Shudra come, he should be
fed and set to household work, (the claim for his service
being put in force).j' The Brahman, it is taught by
tradition {smartye), may read the Vedas to Rajanyas
and Vaishyas and even serve them wdien he is in cir-
cumstances of difficulty. In ordinary circumstances, he
may occupy himself in all kinds of learning, as that of
the Upanishads, and interpretation of calamities. Learn-
ing and reciting (the Vedas), sacrificing for himself
and for others, receiving and giving gifts, are the (six)
Avorks of a Brahman. These, with the exception of

* m ^^iTRs:r# 'Trq’TKmfi

'•si Nj

I Ilir. Sii. (Bum.) xxvii. 1.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE StJTRAS. 193

reciting the Vedas, sacrificing- for others, and receiv-
ing- gifts, are the works of a Kshatrhja, who has also
those of waging war ?ind ruling. The works of the
Vaishya, with the exception of waging war and ruling,
are those of the Kshalriya, with agriculture, keeping-
of cattle, and engaging- in merchandise, added. It
is enjoined that those who do not act according- to the
Institutes should be taken to the prince (rajanya), who
should punish them according to the decision of learned
Brahmans, avoiding- killing and enslaving (ddsya) in the
case of Brahmans, though not in the case of the other
Castes.* Eight kinds of marriage are sanctioned, as in
the Law Books. The benefits of entering- the four
ashramas, of the Bramacliari, Grihastlia, Vanaprastha,
and the Parivraja, and the conduct required in each
of these orders, are mentioned much as in the Law Books.
The Parivraja, in the most advanced ashrama, desiring-
liberation, should lose sight of the distinction between
truth and falsehood, pleasure and pain, beloved and
unbeloved objects, and occupy himself in tlie desire to
have spiritual knowledge and well-being. The Vana-
prastha, going into the forests, should aim at the same
objects. He should live on roots and fruits, and sleep
on the grass. The party who does not desire to live
habitually in this state may marry and discharge his
household duties. He may still be esteemed a Vana-
prastha if he live for a year gleaning in the fields, not
using in this interval salt, honey, or flesh, or having more
than two vessels, one for cooking and the other for eating.f
The Avork notices certain matters on the authority of
* Ib. xxvii. 9. , I liir. Sdm. Sit. .xxvii. 15.

194

WHAT CASTE IS.

Ancient Slilokas, or Shlokas of the Pnranas,# sucli as that
there have keen 88,000 descendants of the Kishis.

The duties of the prince are specified in the eighteen lli
section, much as in the Law Books. He onglit to have at
least two counsell or.s, piu’e and truthful, and acipiaiuted with
the duties of all classes. He ought to he regular in the
discharge of his own duties, healing anus, and having danc-
ing, singing, and music in his omi house. He should allow
110 fear of thieves to he in his country, town, or forest.
By giving power (kshatra) and wealth to Brahmans,
lie will he rewarded in the other Avoiid. He should not
lake the property of Brahmans. The giving to them of
large dakshina is eipiivalent to sacrifice. He ought to
ap])oint hrave and good men for the protection of his

* The seventeenth pafaJa of the twenty-seventh Prashna, commences
As ith these words : — JCHT For occurs

in the index at the end. The Bhavishya Purana is referred to as an
authority in the same patala: — — In the Bha-
vishya Purana, there is a saying of Prajapati, etc. Either this portion of
the Sutras must be held to be an interpolation, or their modern origin
must be admitted, notwithstanding the fact that they bear the name of
lliranyakeshi. In regard to the word patala, Dr. Muller (Hist. A. S.
Lit. p. 524) thus writes : — “We find that several of the Sutras are
divided into chapters called patalas. This is a Avord never used for the
subdivisions of the Brahmanas. Its meaning is a cov’ering, the sur-
rounding skin or membrane ; it is also used for a tree. If so, it would
seem to be almost synonymous with liber and 3;0xos ; and it would
mean book, after meaning originally a sheet of paper made of the
surrounding bark of trees. If Avriting came in tOAvards the latter half
of the Siitra period, it Avould no doubt be applied at the same time to
reducing the hymns and Brahmanas to a Avritten form. Previously to
that time, hoAvever, Ave are bound to maintain that the collection of the
hymns, and the immense mass of the Brahmana literatui'e, AA-ere pre-
served by means of oral tradition only.”

ORICxIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE SI/tRAS. 195

people, to keep a city free of tlie fear of thieves (taskaras)
for the extent of a yojana, and a village for the extent of a
krosha, and to call upon the people residing in these
hounds to make-good the thefts which may occur in them.
Taxes (shulka) should he raised as imposed, hut not
taken from parties learned in Vedic works (shrotriija),
females of any class, young people acqniiing knowledge,
devotees, Shudras discharging their duties (they being the
property of others? ), the blind, the dumh, the deaf, the
diseased, and beggars. The youth who Avithout deliberate
intention goes to the wife of another person or to a virgin,
is to he punished. He aa Iio repeatedly does this has toliaA O
his member excised, or to he deprived of Ins property and
l)anished. The A'rya having connection with a Shudra
Avoman is to he banished ; a Shudra having connection
AA ith an A'rya is to be killed. If a person goes to a
AA'oman of his oaaui class being the AA’ife of another, he
shall have the fourth part of his tongue cut otf for the
first ofl’ence. If he repeat the offence, lie shall have his
Avhole tongue cut out. If a Shudra reproach a dutiful
A'rya, or put liimself on equality Avith him on a road, on
a couch, or on a seat, he is to be beaten with a stick.
For murder, theft, seizing (another’s) land, and going to
the wife of another, a Shudra is to he killed, and a
Brahman to liaA^e his eyes extracted.* ' All this elevates
caste to its own summit, as in the Law Books.

* 3Tw: 5T3rrq-r 5rgr arr^rVl ?rc HT“Trtrr-

®s >

T?rr tt^ 5P-TraTirru#^ eirfrr^fr AHirarR qr-

Ilir. (Dh.) Sii.

xxvii. 19.

196

WHAT CASTE IS.

The A'pastamha Samaydchdnica Sutra and Dharma
Sutra, belong to the same Veda — the Black- Yajnr,
as those which Ave liaA e iioaa' reAneAA ed. They have been
looked at by Dr. Muller, Avho thus Avrites of them.
“ A'pastamha, in his Samavacharika Sutras, declares dis'
tinctly that there are four Varnas, the Brahman, the Ksha-
triya, the Vaishaya, the Shudra, but that the initiatory
rites, the Upanayana in particular, are only intended for
the three first classes. The same is implied, no doid)t, in
the other Sutras which give the rules as to the proper time
Avhen a young Brahman, a young Kshatriya, or a young
Vaishya should be apprenticed Avith their spiritual tutors,
but never say at Avhat age this or similar ceremonies
.should be performed for one not belonging to these three
Varnas. Yet they never exclude the Shudra expressly,
nor do they represent him as the born slave or client of
the other castes. In the Dharma-sutras the social degra-
dation of the Shudra is as great as in the later Law Books,
and the same crime, if committed by a Brahman and a
Shudra, is visited Avith very different punishments. Thus
if a member of the three Varnas commits adultery Avith
the Avife of a Shudra, he is to be banished ; if a Sluidra
commits adultery Avith the Avife of a member of the three
Varnas, he is to be executed. If a Shudra abuses an honest
member of the three Varnas, his tongue is to be cut out.
He is to be flogged for not keeping at a respectful distance.
For murder, theft, and pillage the Shudra is executed ; the
Brahman, if caught in the same offences, is only deprived
of his eyesight. This is the same iniquitous laAA*, Avhich Ave
find in the later Law Books. But althouoh the distinc-

tion between the Shudras and tlie otlier Varnas is so

ORIGIN OF CASTE— NOTICES IN THE Sl^JTRAS. 197

sliarply drawn by A'pastaniba, he admits that a Shiulra,
if he obeys the law, may be born again as a Vaishya, tlie
Vaishya as a Kshatriya, and the Ksliatriya as a Brah-
man ; and that a Brahman if he disregards the law, will
be born again as a Kshatriya, the Kshatriya as a A aisliya,
and the Vaishya as a Sliudra.”* This passage contains
evidence tliat the A pastamba Samayacharika and Dliarma
Si'dras of A'pastaniba agree, in tlie matters mentioned,
witli those of Hiranyakeshi, to whicli we have above
referred. They both exclude the Shudra from tlie Upa-
naj'ana and other rites to which the higher classes have
access. Some of the other Sutras do the same thing,
which is taught by implication, as noticed by Dr. Miiller
in all the Yedic Sutras. f The enslavement of the Shudra,
I rather think, is taken for granted by Hiranyakeshi, when
he hints at the easy appropriation of him, in the terms we
have above referred to.J The iniquitous degradation of
the Shudra, — corresponding with that of the Law Books, —
is expressed in the same language both by Hiranyakeshi
and A'pastamba. It is quite possible, however, from the
reference made to the “ Purana Shlokas,”" which we have
noticed in a portion of the Hiranyakeshi Sutras, that it is
a posterior addition made to them, expressly to effect
their agreement with the Law Books and other later
authorities. § A'pastamba’s reference to a change of

* Hist, of A. S. Lit. p. 207.

t See reference to the Katayana Shrauta-Sutras, p. 183, above.

X See p. 192.

§ Dr. Muller in a note thus di-aws attention to an instance of direct
fraud in a matter of this kind in later times : — “ Apast. i. 6.

198

WHAT CASTE IS.

places in future births, — tlie consequence of the full
development of the doctrine of the metempsjmhosis —
occurs, in the same words in Hiranj'akeshi.*

In the A’ sliraUiyana Shvanta SiVm,'\ associated with
the Rig’-Yeda, we have found no passages referring to
Caste which are not anticipated hy our extracts from the
Brahmanas, except in so far as the reputed gofras,
(families) of the Brahmans, and the progenitor Rislils
recognized hy them in the pravara, or initial invocation
of the god Agni, with the names of ancient Rishis added,
at the consecration of fire, are concerned. These yotras
and pravaras, as found in this Sutra are tabulated hy
Dr. Midler. VVe shall afterwards have to notice them

II later works, such as the Sanskara-ganapati

this Siitra of A'p^ist^iraba, which excludes the Shiidras from initiation,
has been so altered as to admit them. MS. E. I. H. 912, p. 16.
5T>T l | I iigrqTdTrf^rdT-

rJirff II — To elFect this fraud (if a MS. of the Maharashtra

was before its author), nothing more was necessary than to overlook
the involved but unexpressed, short vowel (n ) of the preceding word
forming the negative. The passage in Iliraiiyakeshi .stands thus : —

gfr sr-q-er; ^gr^T^rtTRjs^riT-
qier^rlr^ ^JirPr. (xxvi. l). All that was
necessary for the fraud was to commence the quotation without picking
up the negative a from shrei/ana preceding sMdrdndm. The Slnidra
initiations, etc. effected by the fraud, notwithstanding, were not to be
made by the V edic mantras (still confined to the higher Varnas) but by
what are called the Nama-mantras — mantras framed on the principle
of the mere recognition of the names of the later gods.

* Hir. Sii. xxvii. 10.

f For the copy of these Siitras which we have used, we are indebted
to Bhatpambhatta Phadake of Wai.

X Hist, of A. S. Lit. pp. 380-G.

ORIGIN OF CASTE-NOTICES IN THE SUTRAS. 199

in connexion with the still existing- divisions in the Indian
Brahmanhood.

The Grlhj/a Sutra, — or Sutra of Domestic Rites, — of
A shvala}'ana, also furnishes us with little material con-
nected with caste. The lowly Clrandala is thus associated
with other beings, in the distribution of rice at the Paka-
yajna (the sacrifice of cooked meats*), resorted to on several
domestic occasions: — “ Let anna be thrown on the ground
to dogs, Chandalas, demons, the fallen, and crow's.”'|"
Of sacramental ceremonies to be used by the three Varnas,
up to the time of initiation, the following are mentioned
on the authority of “ Upanishads” not otherw'ise speci-
fied : — Garhhdlaniblia7ia,pnnsavana, anavalohhana, which
are to be performed in the third month of conception ;
shnanlonny ana, io be performed in the fourth month of
conception ; jdlakanna, to be performed at birth ; anna-
prhshana, to be performed in the sixth month after birth ;
chaida, which ought to be performed in the third year
after birth ; and the npanayana,'^ to be performed in
the eighth year after birth in the case of Brahmans,
in the eleventh in the case of Kshatriyas, and the
twelfth in the case of Vaishyas, though they may
be delayed for double these periods in the respective
cases mentioned, at the expiry of which if they be not
performed the parties will be reckoned apostates — patita
savitrika (fallen from the savitri or sacred gayatri), and
incapacitated for initiation, study, and social intercourse

* Dr. Muller (p. 203) takes puka in this word to signify small or
good, as it sometimes does.

t =TiTr5!- RT 'im Rifr A'sh. Grihya Sii. i.

f For the meaning of these words, see before, pp. GO-1.

200

WHAT CASTE IS.

(vijavahareynh).* In connexion -with the return of a
youth to his family after the expiiy of his pupilage, and
the burnt-offering which is then to be made, Agni is to be
addressed as having “ the Brahman for his mouth, the
Rajanya arm, the Vahhya for his belly, and

women for his .”t

Allied in origin to the Sutra now referred to is the
Mdnava Kcdpa (Ceremonial) Sutra, connected with the
Black Yajur Veda, the first four books of which have been
lately lithographed under the auspices of Dr. Goldstiicker.
In this cuiious and rare fragment we have found but
little which bears on caste, while this little has, on other
authorities, been mostly anticipated in the preceding pages.
The leavings at the Homa, however, it tells us are to be
ate and drunk by the Brahman, and not by the Rajanya
or Vaishya. J The second birth (dvljalva) is not to be reck-
oned as effected in the case of Shudras, even when the
Sanskaras of the Dvijas (the Brahman, Kshatriya, and
Ahiishya) are practised by them.§ Pious Rajanyas are
recommended to have a continuous Agnihotra under the
care of a Ritvija, for it is the Brahman who has the (spe-
cial) })rivilege of sacrifice. In connexion with this, the
commentator (Kumarila) holds that no Brahman engaged
in tlie occupation of other castes should be employed in
the Agnihotra (or other sacrificial lites), and cpiotes iii
support of this view a dictum (which also occurs in the

* Ash. Gr. Su. i. 12-19. . f Ib. iii. 8.

t Manava Kalpa Siitra, fol. 55 (b). The transcript (nearly amount-
ing to a fac-simile) was made by a Sanskrit student, Mi.ss Amelia
Rattenbury.

§ Manava Kalpa Sutras, fol. 76 (6).

ORIGIN OF CASTE— RECAPITULATION.

201

!Manii Smriti) to the effect that “ Brahmans who take care
of cattle, who trade, who practise mechanical and sportive
arts, Avho are hody-attcndants, who are usurers, are to be
treated as Shudras.”"^

The Sutras very unequivocally bring’ us to the Law
Books. The time of their respective authors, or rather
collectors, we may afterwards notice.

Without enlarging- at present on wliat lias so evidently
conducted us to what are, undoubtedly, the positive insti-
tutions of Caste, we would now make a brief recapitulation
of this long section of our work, with a view to concen-
trating on the precise subject of our inquiries the scattered
rays which it furnishes.

The ruling tribe of India for many ages past has been
that of the ATyas, whose language (the oldest specimens
of which Ave have in the Vedas, and which was ultimately
called the Sanskrit), is admitted by all philologists to be
cognate with the Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, Armenian,
Persian, and other European and Asiatic languages, com-
prehended in the Indo-Teu tonic family. It bears the
closest analogy to the Zend, in which exist the ancient liter-
ary works of the followers of Zoroaster, or the Iranians,
or Parsls. The Iranians derived their name from their
supposed primitive seat as an organized community,
Airyana Vaejo (the Aryan Vaejo), on the slopes of the
mountainous country between the Oxus and Jaxartes,
the general name of the land over which they afterwards
spread on their way to the south being Airya, the

* Mdnava Kalpa Sutras, fol. 98 (b). The dictum quoted occurs in
the Manu Smriti, viii. 102, where it is applied to the treatment of
witnesses.

202

WHAT CASTE IS.

noun of the adjective Airyana now mentioned. The
word A’rya in Sanskrit designates the people who had
come from Ainja, in the first instance, to the banks of
the Indus, where, in consequence of social and religious
changes, they became to a great extent separated from
their congeners, who had failed to follow them to the
limits of their wanderings. On the affluents and banks of
the Indus, the ATyas composed the hjunns now found
in the Yedic collections, which are the only sources of
our knowledge of their ancient state. The religious
differences which occurred between them and the
Iranians w^ere of considerable magnitude ; but never-
theless they left many traces, as we have seen, of a
common faith and practice in the ages of antiquity.
The A'ryas w^ere in many respects an interesting peo-
ple, and considerabl}^ advanced in civilization ; but as
they extended themselves in the land of the Indus
and adjoining territories, and came in contact witli
other tribes who had preceded them in their immi-
grations into these regions of the earth, they manifested
to them great pride of race and violence of religions
antipathy and opposition, as is abundantl}' evident from
numerous passages wdiicb we have produced from
their ancient literaiy remains. This j)ride of race and
violence of religious antipathy w^ere the origin of the
caste feeling ever afterwards displayed by the A'ryas to the
tribes whom they supposed to be inferior to themselves,
and more especially to those who have not been able in
Avhole or in part to resist their religions and civil domi-
nion. So powerful were the effects of these evils that the
A'ryas viewed the strange peo])le, whose inheritances

ORIGIN OF CASTE— RECAPITULATION.

203

they sought to possess, as scarcely human beings. Their
very names they made the synonyms of fiends and devils.

But in connexion with Caste the community of the
A'ryas themselves has to be looked at as well as their
bearing to the tribes and races exterior to that commu-
nity. Though religious and social distinctions were
known among them from their entrance into India, Caste
in the technical sense of the term did certainly not then
exist amono; them. The Brahmd or Brahman was at
first merely the utterer or conductor of hrahma or prayer ;
the Rdjanya, the prince, and the Kshatra, or Kshatriya,
were the possessors and dispensers of the raj or govern-
ment, and hshatra, power or authority ; and the Visha,
Vita, or Vaishya, was an ordinary householder. Rank
and profession were seen in these distinctions ; but they
were founded on fitness, conventional understanding, and
arrangement ; and not on an alleged diverse generation
from the body or subslanceof deity. Asfaras any religious
pre-eminence might be associated with them, they were
not even hereditary. The Brahmans asked no privileges
on account of original status or dignity. As distinguished
from other priests associated with themselves and be-
longing to the same class, they Avere only, on first obtain-
ing distinction, conductors of tli6 greater ceremonials,
and the appointed Purohitas, or family-priests of kings
and princes. The highest parties in a religious point of
view in the ATyan community were the Rishis, the
poetical authors of their hymns ; and these might belong
either to kingly, priestly, common, or even Dasyu, fami-
lies. Instances of their intermarriage in both kingly and
priestly families are brought to notice. Rdjatiyas and

2C4

WHAT CASTE IS.

VaisJnjas had the privilege of conducting sacrifice as well
as Brahmans ; and no peculiar appropriation of duty to
Vaishyas w^as for long made by religious legislation. The
name Shudra does not even occur in the early parts of
the collection of the Vedas. It belonged to a people
first found (and enslaved) by the AVyas on tlie banks of
the Indus; and it was afterwards given to other bodies
of men placed in a similar position with regard to the
dominant tribe. The doctrine of Caste impurity and
defilement is not found in the ancient Vedic collections,
though the Brahmanas make allusions to sacramental
defilement. Tlie peculiar conception of the god Brahma,
in connexion with Avhich the theory of Caste is associated,
had been formed in the first of the Vedic ages. The Hymn
of the Primeval Male in which it is first found in an
incipient form does not belong to the earlier portions of
the Vedas-

It is in the derivative Vedas that the predominance of
the Brahman in sacrifice first begins authoritatively to
appear. In these derivative Vedas, too, various social
distinctions and professional functions are first mentioned,
tliough without any reference to an established religious
foundation. Custom, it may be admitted, however, was
at the time of the arrangement of these Vedas preparing
the way for the development of inter-A'iyan Caste. In
one of the Khillas, or supplementary chapters, of the White
Yajur Veda, that denominated the Purushamedha, — cer-
tainly not older than the period of the Bredimanas, — numer-
ous distinctiveand curious classes in the Indian community
are brought to notice. Many of these classes w^ere after-
wards recognized as forming discriminated castes ; but a

ORIGIN OF CASTE- RECAPITULATION.

205

reference to their specified associations and connexions
shows that the Caste-system was not matured when the
chapter of the Purushamedha was composed-

A great deterioration of the Indian mind, bearing on
tlie development of Caste, appears in connexion with
the A the latest of the Vedic collections. The
Indian people are obviously brought to notice in it as
bound in the fetters of an established hierarchy and ram-
pant superstition. The priest, particularly the priest of
the Atharva class, is dominant in that work. In it, too,
the Brahman, or the Piiro1iita,\% not the minister, or sub-
stitute, but the lord of the prince ; and peculiar privileges
are consequently to he enjoyed by him.

In the Drahmanas, or earliest Liturgical and Rubrical
Directories and Compilations of the Legendry and Specula-
tion of the Brahmans, — the supposed age of which has just
been mentioned, — the progress of tlie Brahmans to power,
and the gradual development of Caste in general, receives
soine valuable incidental illustrations. These compositions
always treat of the Brahmans as a pre-eminent cla^s, ascrib-
ing their “ beauty and wisdom” to the Gayatri verse ; while
they speak of the Kshatriya as obtaining “ splendour and
bravery” from the Trishtub,and of the Vaishya, as getting-
cattle, from the Jagati. A certain Rishi ol the Vedtas, a
Dusyaputra they tell us, enjoyed his status only by the spe-
cial favour of the gods. The Brahman, they say, stands in
the relationship to others of Brihaspati, the Purohitaof the
gods. They encourage the maintenance of a hereditary priest-
hood, even by force. They relate long legends to enhance
the virtue of the royal Vishvamitra, who had been raised
to the Brahmanhood by his adoption ol a Brahman who

•206

WHAT CASTE IS.

had narrowly escaped been sacrificed to the gods ; and
they degrade the memory of this Visln amitra by making
him tlie parent of certain aboriginal tribes. Tliey throw
distinctive light on the manner in wliich the Brahmans
practically obtained a monopoly in sacrifice. The Brah-
mans, they tell ns, acted in their own peculiar character
and functions Avhen they conducted sacrifices, while the
Kshatriyas laid aside their peculiar character and functions
when they sacrificed and performed a work beyond their
general ability. They invent stories of excessive (almost
incalculable) rewards having been given by princes to
olliciating priests. They put the Brahman in the class of
, the gods, and the Shudra in the class of the devils. Nay,
thev declare that the Brahman is everv divinitv. In the
lack of a goat for a sacrifice, the Homa, they declare, may
be made at the right hand of a Brahman. He is the Vaish-
vanara fire; if the Homa be made on the hand,

it is as if made by Agni himself. The Bvdhman is of the
form of the day ; the Kshatriya, of the form of the night.
The SfiHclra is oiilv the watchman at the great horse-
sacrifice. It is perhaps in connexion with his watching
at sacrifice, or in his participation in the edibles or potables
of sacrifice (also referred to in the Brahmanas) that the
Shudra in a particidar instance is invited to sacrifice.*
'The Brahman they recommend to seek to be the personal
representative at sacrifice of every Kshatriya. Defilement
and uupurity they first bring to notice ; but this not in
connexion with the persons of men in ordinary cu'cum-
stances, as in the matured system of caste, but in con-
nexion with sacramental services.

* See above, p. 1G3.

ORIGIN OF CASTE— RECAPITULATION.

207

One of the legends of the Brahmanas, ag-reeing- in some
respects witli the INIosaic history of tlie Deluge, seems to
indicate that the A’rvas had some tradition of their havino-

• O

j)assed some great mountainous range to the north on their
coming to India. This agrees with the inferences noticed in
the commencement of this section of our work. A party
connected with Gandharais represented in the Shatapatlia
Brahmana as speaking in his proper character, and this as
an ATyan. Pentads and Heptads are mentioned in the
same Avork, hut these perhaps only in connexion with the
peoples of the Panjah and the contiguous country.

The old Aranyalas and U^xiiiishach, Avhich are found-
ed on Pantheism, or on Dualism, are philosopliically speak-
ing unfavourahle to caste, inasmuch as they treat of all
the A aiieties of men and animals as merely developments
of Brahma, which they use in the neAv sense of the
universal Self, Soul, or Spirit. They even ascribe the
origin of the knowledge of Brahma (in a passage Avhich
we shall afterwards quote) to the Kshatriyas as distin-
puished from the Brahmans.* Yet incidental references

and legends in these works are sometimes not inconsistent
Avitli the claims of the Brahmans for pre-eminence.
Brahma, they say, is the birth-place of the Kshatra. God
in the Brahman is in his highest form. The doctrine
of Brahma (or Soul) may he learned from a Kshatrya; hut
it goes against the grain for a Brahman to approach a
Kshatriya to learn this doctrine. Looking to the non-ini-
tiated Avorld, these philosophical works recognize the Brah-
manical A'shrams, or Orders, as in the later LaAv Books.
The founders of the Indian Schools, in general, accommo-
* Chhaudogya Up. v. 3. 7.

208

WHAT CASTE IS.

dated themselves to the prevailing customs and supersti-
tions of the country.

The Vedic Sutras, the period of which prohahlv ranges
from 000 to 200 before Christ, and which are intermediate
between the Brahmanas and the Law Books, show a
marked growth in the development of caste. This remark is
more applicable, however, to the Shrauta Sutrcisund Sdma-
yachdrika or Dharma Sutras, than to the Grihya Sutras
or Sutras of Domestic Services ; but our references to them
liave been so recent that they need not be here recapitu-
lated.

From what we have collected, translated, and said in
this long section, it must be apparent that Caste, which
was not an original institution of the A'ryas, arose from
small and almost imperceptible beginnings, though in a
way which at the same time is not unintelligible in the view
of the admitted pravities of human nature. Our conclu-
sions respecting it though founded on a personal and special
examination of the Vedic works to which we have refer-
red (with the helps with which they are now associated),
are wonderfull}’ in accordance ’with those of the learned
orientalists who have of late years given their attention
to it in Europe, such as Lassen, Both, Weber, jMuir,
and Max Muller. All these learned gentlemen have, at
o-reater or less length, noticed the rise aud advancement
of the Brahmauical power much in the way we have
done in the preceding pages. Dr. Muller, for example,
thus writes in his usual animated style, but with an acute
recognition of facts and principles : — “ The three occu-
pations of the A'ryas in India were fighting, cultivating
the soil, and worshipping the gods. Those who fought

ORIGIN OF CASTE— RECAPITULATION.

209

the battles of the people would naturally acquire influ-
ence and rank, and their leaders appear in the Veda as
Rajas or Kings. Those who did not share in the fighting
would occupy a more humble position ; they were called
Vish, Vaishyas, or householders, and would no doubt
have to contribute towards the maintenance of the armies.”
“ But a third occupation, that of worshipping the gods,
was evidently considered by the whole nation to be as
important and as truly essential to the well-being of the
country as fighting against enemies or cultivating the
soil. However imperfect and absurd their notions of the
Deity may seem to us, we must admit that no nation vtas
ever so anxious to perform the service of their gods as the
early Hindus. It is the gods who conquer the enemy, it is
the gods who vouchsafe a rich harvest. Health and wealth,
children, friends, flocks, and gold, all are the gifts
of the gods. And these are not unmeaning phrases with
those early poets.” “ Among a nation of. this peculiar
stamp the priests were certain to acquire great influence
at a very early period, and, like all priests, they were as
certain to use it for their own advantage, and to the ruin
of all true religious feeling. It is the lifespring of all
religion that man feels the immediate presence of God,
and draws as near to God as a child to his father. But
the priests maintained that no one should approach the
gods without their intercession, and that no sacrifices
should be offered without their advice. Most of the
Indo-European nations have resisted these claims, but in
India the priests were successful, and in the Veda,
alread}'^, though only in some of the latest hymns, the
position of the priest or the Purohita, is firmly esta-

210

WHAT CASTE IS.

blislied.” “These ver}^ 113'mns were the chief strengtli
on which the priests relied, and they were handed down
from father to son as the most valuable heirloom. A
hymn by which the gods had been invoked at the
beginning of a battle, and which had secured to the king
a victory over his enemies, was considered an unfailing
spell, and it became the sacred war-song of a whole trihe.
But the priests only were allowed to chant these songs,
they onl}^ were able to teach them, and the^^ impressed
the people with a belief that the slightest mistake in the
words, or the pronunciation of the words, would rouse
the anger of the gods. Thus they became the masters
of all religious ceremonies, the teachers of the people, the
ministers of kings. Their favour was courted, their
anger dreaded, b}" a pious but credulous race. The
priests never aspired [nominally] to Royal power. They
left the insignia of royalty to the military caste. But
woe to the warrior who would not submit to their spiri-
tual guidance, or who would dare to perform his sacrifice
without waiting for his Samuel ! There were fierce and
sanguinary struggles between tlie priests and the nobility
before the King consented to how before the Brahman.
In the ^’^eda we still find Kings composing their own
hymns to the gods, royal bards, Rajar.«his, who united in
their person the powers both of king and priest. The
family of Vishvamitra has contributed its own collection
of hymns to the Rig- Veda, but Vishvamitra himself was
of royal descent, and if in later times he is represented
as admitted to the Brahmanic family of the Bhrigus —
a family famous for its sanctity as well as its valour — this
is but an excuse invented bv the Brahmans, in order to

ORIGIN OF CASTE— RECAPITULATION.

211

explain what would otherwise have upset their old system .
King- Janaka of Yideha is represented in some of the
Brahmanas as more learned than any of the Brahmans
at his Court. Yet, when instructed by Yajiiavalkaya as
to the real nature of the soul and its identity with
Brahma, or the divine spirit, he exclaims, ‘ I will give
thee, 0 A'enerable, the kingdom of the Videhas, and my
own self, to become thy slave.’ As the influence of the
Brahmans extended they became more and more jealous
of their privileges, and, while fixing their own privileges,
they endeavoured at the same time to circumscribe the
duties of the warriors and the householders. Those of the
ATyas who would not submit to the laws of the three
estates were treated as outcasts, and they are chiefly
known by the name of Vratyas or tribes. They spoke
the same language as the three Aryan castes, but they
did not submit to Brahmanic discipline, and they had to
perform certam penances if they wished to be readmitted
into the ATyan society. The aboriginal inhabitants again,
who conformed to the Brahmanic law, received certain
privileges, and were constituted as a fourth caste, under
the name of Shudras, whereas all the rest who kept aloof
were called Dasyus, whatever their language might be.”«=
^Ye clearly see the path over which the Brahmans moved,
though we cannot sympathize with either their aspirations
or their success. Caste was a growth, pride being its
seminal principle — the pride of race, and the pride of
religious presumption and pre-eminence, issuing in
arrogant monopoly.

* Times, 10th April, 1858.

212

AVHAT CASTE IS.

YI. — Caste in the Indian Epics.

In looking for information as to the origin and early
development of Caste, "we have hitherto confined our
attention to the Yedic works, of different characters and
ages, which, as far as that iustitiition*is concerned, have
passed in review before us in the preceding section of our
volume. We have next to seek for illustrations of its
action in Indian society in the literature which may be
considered, at least, in its original form, intermediate
between these Yedic works and the Hindu Law-Books,
in which Caste is essentially bound up with Hinduism,
and decreed, as far as priestly legislation can accomplish
the matter, to last till the world, by its impairment and
neglect, is ripe for destruction.* We now turn our
attention to the Epics, which, when critically viewed,
are really the best sources of information respecting the
working of Caste influences and their extension and
maintenance throughout India.

By the Indian Epics, we mean the Ramaijana and the
Mahahharata. They are both designated Kavya, poetry
properly so-called, and itihasa or dkJnjdna, narrative or
tale. They were first denominated Epics by Sir William
Jones, whose conjectures, even respecting what was but
imperfecth’^ known in his day, were often of a happy
character. “ The appropriateness of the epithet,” says
Professor H. H. Wilson, “ has been denied by some of those
ultra-admirers of Yirgil and Homer, who will allow the
dignity of the Epos to be claimed by none but the objects
of their idolatry : and, in the restricted sense in which a
poem is entitled Epic, agreeable to the definition of
* See before, note, p. 72.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE RAMAYANA.

213

Aristotle, it may indeed be matter of question, if the
term be strictly applicable to the Hindu Poems. Al-
though, however, it might not be impossible to vindicate
their pretensions to such a title, yet it is not worth while
to defend them. It matters little what they are called ;
and they wall not lose their value, as interesting narra-
tives of important events, as storehouses of historical
traditions and m3^thological legends, as records of the
ancient social and political condition of India, and as
juctnres of natural manners, if, instead of epic, they be
denominated heroic poems.”* As they are now found,
they are both, especially theMahabharata, deficient in unity,
and have an immense number of anachronisms, episodes,
digressions, discussions, interpolations, many of which are
posterior to their original composition. We notice them
in what we conceive to be the order of that composition.

1. The Ramdijana, or Progress-of-Iiama, derives its
name from Rama, King of A\ odhya, (“Oude”), the thirty-
fourth in descent according to one of its recensions from
the mythical personage Vaivasvata, or Maim, the son of
the sun. Its great object is to celebrate, after a mj^thical
or allegorical form, the advancement of the ATyan power
and rites among the uncivilized tribes of the south of
India, the opposition to which is typified by a Rakshasa
or giant named Ravana, |' who is said to have carried ofl'
Sita, the wife of Rama, the daughter of Swadhaya, the
representative of the line of Janaka of Videha, or Maithila.

* Introduction to Johnson’s Selections from the Mahiibharata.

•j" “ "Wliat this is to India,” says Dr. Max Muller, “ the war of

Persia was to Greece ; the victory of patriotic valour over brute force.
The muses of Herodotus are the Ramiiyana of Hellas.” Hist. A. S.
Lit. p. 17. Yet, how vastly different their character !

211

WPIAT CASTE IS.

This occurred when Rama, banished by his father
Dasliaratha, was living as an ascetic in the forests, along
with one of his brothers Lakshmana, The action of the
poem is primarily directed to the recovery and reinstate-
ment of Sita ; and on the whole it is of a uniform casting.
Rama, with the assistance of Sugriva, Hanuman, and
other monkey chiefs, (representatives of forest tribes,) in-
vaded Lanka, the country of the ravisher, took his capital,
killed Ravana in fight, established the brother of the
offender (Yiblnshana, the formidable) on the throne, and
returned to Ayodhya, where he reigned in succession to
his father. The sphere of the poem, viewed in its essen-
tial range, as observed by Professor Lassen, is geogra-
phically limited to the country north of the Vindhya
[mountains] ; in the south there is nothing but a wilder-
ness of forests, with monkevs for inhabitants.” Little
notice is taken in it of any southern peoples, though
there are allusions to them in Sugriva’s charge to the mon-
keys requiring them to search various localities for Sita, as
will afterwards appear ; and the extension of its story to
Lanka, or Ceylon, as thought by Lassen, is probably poste-
rior to its original composition. It is attributed to V almiki,
a Brahman, represented as the contemporary of Rama ; but
certainly it was not composed in the days of that king,
Avhile large portions of it so speak of Valmiki as to show
that he was not their author. The portions of it which
allude to Rama as an incarnation of a portion, or a portion-
of-a-portion {anshdnshu) of the god Vishnu do not seem
to belong to its original plan.* It was originally handed

* “ lu the Epic poems,” says Lassen, “ Riima and Krishna certainly
appear as incarnations of Vishnu, but at the same time as human

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE RAMAYANA.

215

down orally ; and is said to have been sung at a great
Ashvamedha, or royal horse-sacrifice by Kusha and Lava,
the reputed [but disowned] sons of its hero, “ their joint
name {Kushilava”), as remarked by Lassen, “ signifying a
bard and at a later time an actor, as though the hero had
through his seed given birth to a race of bards,” A good
portion of it, distinguished for the ease and naturalness of
its language, may have been composed when the Sanskrit
was a spoken language, which it ceased to be soon after

heroes ; and these two representations are so little commingled that
both of the two ordinarily display themselves only like other more
highly-gifted men, act according to human motives, and do not by any
means turn their divine superiority to account. It is only in single
sections especially added to inculcate their divinity that they come
forward as Vishnu. No one can read the two poems with attention
w'ithont being reminded of the later addition of these deifying sections,
of the awkward manner in which they are often introduced, of the
looseness of their connexion, and of their superfluousness with refer-
ence to the progress of the narrative. Even as the Mahdbharata now
stands Krishna is not the principal hero of the poem ; this part is ap-
propriated to the Pandavas. He certainly belonged to the original
Piindava legend, but only as the hero of his tribe, and not as occupying
a higher position than the Pandavas. His elevation above his fellow-
heroes is due to later endeavours, but does not pervade the whole work,
and it is only in a very few places that the later editors have ventured
to call the Bharata the holy book of Krishna.” For Lassen on the
Indian Epics, see his Indische Altherthumskunde, i. 479-499. Gorresio,
in his preface to the fifth volume of his text of the Ramayana, after
quoting the passages in which Rama is spoken of in that work as an
Avatiira of Vishnu, hesitates to pronounce on the question of their
original connection, or not, with the poem. At p. xlviii, he says,
“ Resti dunque sospesa la sentenza ; suh judice h$.” The passages
quoted are but few in number, and the idea which they express is
certainly not wrought into the body of the poem.

216

■\VIIAT CASTE IS.

tlie time of Buddha. Its legends (as well as those of the
IMahablidrata which is posterior to it) Professor Lassen
justly holds, were remolded in a way which tended to
generalize them and obliterate the features of the more
ancient times, and while the whole material was subjected
to a priestly, religious influence.” “ The views of a later
period,” the same distinguished author adds, “ pene-
trated the ancient legend ; the doctrines of the three great
gods [Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva] of the four castes and
their position, and whatever other ideas were not a part of
the Indian system, took possession also of the traditions of
the earliest era. The priestly element of the history of
the gods restricted the martial character of the heroic
legend, and confined it to narrower limits. The battles in
the Rainayana seek rather to excite our astonishment by
supernatural personages and weapons, than to awaken our
wonder by great natural human prowess.” Pahlavas (the
Pactyes of the Greeks), Shakas, Yavanas, (Ibiies, or
Greeks) are mentioned in it* ; and in all probability, the
Yavanas here referred to became known to the Indians pos-
terior to the days of Alexander the Great. It is diflicult,
almost impossible in many instances, to distinguish between
the more ancient and more modern portions of the Avork,
between those Avhich are prior and those which are posterior
to the triumph of Buddhism. It exists, it may be proper here
to add, in at least tAvo recensions, the Northern recension and
Gaud, or Bengal, recension, AA’hich, in some places, differ
considerably in their Avording, though little in their meaning.
Sometimes AAe have had the one, and sometimes the other,
in oin hands, Avhen making our extracts. In the portions

* Ram. i. 55.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE RAMA YANA.

217

of the Ramayanji meritoriously published and translated by
l^rs. Marshman and Carey, there is a combination, or
mixture, of the recensions. Sclilegel attempted, in the
portions which he edited and translated, to give the
northern text in its purity. It is the Gaud recension
which of late years has been very neatly and accurately
edited, with an excellent Italian translation, by the Cave-
liere Gaspare Gorresio. In the Sanskrit text of the work,
it is said to consist of 24,000 verses.* One of my friends
(the Rev. J. W. Gardner), who has kindly counted them
for me, finds them to amount to 20,213.

It has evidently been an object with the authors of tlie
Ramayana, to represent the Caste system, — especially as
connected with the Brahmans, Ksliatriyas, Yaishyas, and
Shudras, — as essentially formed in the days of Rama the
King of Ayodhya, whose doings they celebrate in a myth-
ical form. These castes are often mentioned together,
throughout that poem, as forming the recognized divisions
of Hindu society. In its introduction it is prophesied of
Rama, as the descendant of Raghu, one of his predecessors
on the throne, that he should establish the four Varrms in
the world according to their respective duties.f Among
the inhabitants of his capital were the excellent twice-born
men maintaining the sacrificial fire, deeply read in the V eda
and its six Angas,J distributors of thousands (of gifts), full

* Ram. i. at the end. f Ramayana i. 199.

f The six Yediingas, or “ members-of-the-Veda.” “ This name,”
Dr. Muller (Hist. A. S. Lit. p. 109) correctly say.s, “ does not imply the
existence of six distinct books or treatises intimately connected with
their [the Brahmans’] sacred wiltings, but merely the admission of six

218

WHAT CASTE IS.

of truth, discipline, and mercy, like the ancient great
Rishis, controllers of themselves* Of its people in general
it is said that no one of them was anyayavritlimdn, addicted
to a calling not his own.f “ The Kshatra, Brahma, and
Vita were loyal to their sovereign j while there were no
Sankaras (mixed classes) either by bu’th or by conduct.”;}:
“ All the Varnas kept by their proper work.”§ To the
horse-sacrifice of Dasharatha, the father of Rama, per-
formed for the sake of offspring, learned and devout
Brahmans were ordered to be summoned by Sumantra, his
minister, who is said to have introduced Suyajna, Vama-
deva, Javali, Kashyapa, the Piu-ohita Vasishtha, and others,
the poet by a gross anachronism going back to the times of
the Vedas |j These Brahmans began to conduct the sacri-
fice. Multitudes of then’ caste were present, who were
furnished with abandance of food and drink. Pious persons
of the four castes were ordered by Vasi.slitha to be invited,
andako Janaka,king of Mithila,the Kingof Kashi, the king-

subjects, tbe study of which was necessary either for the reading, the
understanding, or the proper sacrificial employment of the Veda.”
Dr. M. thinks they were originally “ integral portions of the Brahmanas,
in the same manner as the [primitive] Puranas and Itihasas,” and not
the “ small and barren tracts now known by this name.” (p. 110.).
They are mentioned in the little Charanavyuha to which we mu.st after-
wards refer, as shikshd (pronunciation), kalpa (ceremonial), vyakdrmm
(grammar), (explanation, of words), c/m/ida (metre), &ndjyotislia

(astronomy and astrology). All the Brahmans consider them to have
still these di-visions.

Ram. i. 5. 20. p Ram. i. 6. 6.

: Ram. i. 16. (N. R.)

II Ram. i. 11. 6-9. See also ii. 8.

f Riim i. 6. 21.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE KA'MA'YANA.

219

of Kekayi, Lomapada the king' of Anga, the kings to the
east of Sindhusanvira and Snrashtra, alid the kings of the
south, who must consequently be supposed to have been
followers of the A'ryan faith.* Thousands of Brahmans
were feasted separately. The king, bent on increasing his
family, presented on that occasion the east country to the
Hotri, the west to the Adhvaryn, the south to the Brdh-
man, and the north to the Udgatri ; hut these classes of
priests devoted to the study of the Veda, refused this
otlering, accepting, however, “ a million of cows, a hundred
millions of (pieces of) gold, and four times as many pieces
of silver.” In addition to this he gave ten millions (of the
gold) of Jamhunada to the Brahmans in general.'!' A
somewhat similar liberality was shown by him on the
occasion of the marriage of his four sons, when he gave
the Brahmans four hundred thousand cows. J Of even this

liberality, the rich Brahmans are represented as scarcely
standing in need. Vasishtha is made to decline for his
cow Shabala (which yielded according to desire) an offer
from Vishvamitra of fourteen thousand elephants, with

^ Some have supposed that the Surdshtra and Sauvira here men-
tioned were contiguous countries ; but this was not the case. Si'ta in
resisting the addresses of Eavana (Ham. iii. 53.56) alludes to their
distance from one another as an illustration of the distance between him
and Kama, her husband, in her estimation. Surdshtra was in the penin-
sula of Kdthidwdd, and Sauvira (or Sindhu-Sauvira) a district on the
Indus, far to the east. Tire Brahmans of Sehwan (the Sindomana of
Alexander’s historians) identify their town with Sindhu-Sauvira, but
erroneously, as it is comparatively near Surdshtra.

y Earn. i. 12. 12, et. seq. Compare both recensions.

t Edm. i. 74. 28-9.

220

WHAT CASTE IS.

golden appurtenances ; eight hundred golden chariots, with
four white horses for each ; one thousand and ten horses
of good hirth by country and family, and ten millions of
cows of various colours and hues.* This cow, Shahala, the
creation of the ingenuity of the Brahmans, seems to have
had gi’eat regard for the glory of Brahmans, for she says to
her owner : “ A Kshatriya’s power, it is said, is not so
powerful as that of a Brahman, which being the power
of the Brahma is divine and greater than that of the
Kshatra.”f An extraordinary conflict is represented as haA -
ino- been maintained between ^'ishvamitra and Vashishtha,
which ended in the former performing most extraordinary
austerities to obtain the Brahmanhood which the earlier
traditions of the Hindus represent him as having acquired.^
Bhagiratha, the son of Ddipa, is exhibited as performing
austerities for the descent of the Ganges, for a thousand
years, suiTounded in the hot season with five fires and in
the cold lying in water, according to the ordinances (found
in Manu).§ Allusions ai'e made in it to the destruction in
a former ao-e of the Kshatrivas hv Paraslmrama, the son of
Jamadagni, because of their opposition to the Brahmans. ((
Dasliaratha, on his sending his son Bharata to his grand-
father, thus counsels him : — “ Be thou modest and pious
and humble, O my son ; by every endeavour seek to please
the Brahmans devoted to the work of the Shruti and exert-
ing themselves in service. Ask thou counsel of them ; let

* Riirn. i. 54. 19-22. f Ib. i. 55. 14.

I Ramayana i. 54-67. See on this Muir’s Texts, i. 98-110,

§ Riim. i. 44. 9-12. See before, p. 34.

II Ram. i. 76. 21 et seq.

CASTE IN THE EPICS-TTIE KA'JIA'YANA.

221

llieir counsel be received by ibee as the elixir of immortal-
ity. They are the root of prosperity and glory. 'J'lie
Brahmans, the ntterers of the brahma, are necessary in
every ceremonial institute. The gods, O son, O most wise,
have, for maintaining the existence of men, assumed the
abode of humanity becoming gods on earth, the twice-
born. To them belong the Vedas, the Dharmashdstra,
the disciplinary Institutes, the Nlti-shastra, and the
science of Archery.”* The Brahmans are set forth as
deeply lamenting for Rdma when ordered by his father to
take up his abode in the wilderness ; and when they fol-
loAved him on foot, it is said, he would not ride.f Dasha-
ratha, his father, who also accompanied him to Chitrakuta,
is made to express to one of his wives his deep penitence for
having killed a boy who appeared to be of the Brah-
manical race, and he was comforted by the youth saying,
“ I am not of the twice-born ; throAV aside the fear of
(having committed) Brahmacide. I was produced by a
Brdhman on a female Shudra living in the wilderness. ”J
The property, as well as the life of a Brahman is repre-
sented as sacred, by Bharata, when he complains of Rama
having been sent by his father into the wilderness.'^
Rama’s success in war is attributed more to the hows,
arrows, scimitars, and other weapons which he received
from the Rishis and other Brahmans than to any portion
of the divinity which he is represented as possessing. |j

Earn. i. 79, 16-20.
t Earn. ii. 66. 43.

II Earn. i. 30, et in al. loc<

■]■ Earn. ii. 43.

§ Riiin. ii. 74. 53.

WHAT CASTE IS.

0-2 2

The lionour of the Brahmans is set fortli as one of the
grand duties of inoralit}^ which are thus spoken of: —

'WrsrJT ^

JTTr^^JTr m’q’^rrar^rr ^ |
rg:3rfffT^ifTf?TT3pf ^

TP^rr^irrirwTT^q’

The sages say that truth, and religion, and valor,
and tenderness for living beings, and affectionate speech,
and the service or worship of the twice-born, the gods,
and guests, form the path which leads to heaven.*” Here
the Brahmans take precedence of the gods.

Little is found in the Ramayana about the distinctive
position of the Kshatriyas. It must be remembered,
however, that the grand object of the poem is the lauda-
tion of the princes of Ayodhya in the use of their
kshatra, or power. The Kshatri3'as, it shows us, formed
the leaders of armies. Bali, or Valia monke}^ prince, when
expostnlating with Rama for wounding him with an arrow
not in fair fight, says to him, “ Composedness, liberality,
self-confidence, forgiveness, truthfulness, boldness, steadi-
ness, and the disposition to punish transgressors are
the qualities of the Kshatra.” The same quadrumanous

'• Eiim. ii. 118, 32. The moral teachings of this chapter are much
superior to those of the professed law-books. The following lines
(verses 13-14) are excellent: —

q-ff: nfTTU II

Tratliis the founda'.ion of pietj' in the world; the root of religion is truth;

Truth is the supreme principle in the world ; on truth prosperity rests.

Tnith is the most excellent of all things; wherefore let truth be glorious.

CASTE IX THE EPICS— THE RA'MA'YAXA.

2-23

teacher gives him the following instruction agreeable
to the Law Books: — “Thedestroyerofkings, ofBrahmans,
and of cows, the thief, the life-taker, the atheist, and the
younger brother who marries before the elder, go to hell.
My skin is not fit to be worn by saints. What will you do
with my bones ! My flesh is not to be ate by^a Brahma-
chari like thyself. O descendant of Raghu, there are five
classes (of animals) with five nails which are not to be
ate by Brahmans and Kshatriyas. The hare, porcupine,
guana, crocodile, and tortoise are these five. These ^ther
five have been mentioned (by law) to me as inedible — the
jackal, crocodile, monkey, kinnara, and man.* Munis
do not touch either my skin or bones. My flesh is not
to be ate by saints ; I am of the five-nailed. ”j' Lakshmana,
the brother of 'Rama, when instructing Sugriva, the
brother and successor of Bali, seems to have made a return
for this information ; for he repeats this Shloka on the
authority of Brahma : — “ For the slayer of a Brahman,
for the drinker of intoxicants, for the thief, and for the
breaker of vows an atonement (iiishKritiX) is prescribed;
but for ingratitude there is no atonement.”^

Though the authors of the Ramayana speak of the
Yaishyas and Shi'alras as having their respective functions

* The word for man here is nara, coupled with vdnara (monkey),
— the man-of-the woods, — according to the native etymologists,
t Ram. iv. 16. 22, 30-34.

J Literally “ a-doing-away.” The word is used in MaraRii as well as
in Sanskrit, and is often nearer the idea.of“ atonement” than prdijas-
cliitta, the meaning of which frequently is “ penance,” or “ penitence.”

Ram. iv. 34. 18.

221

WHAT CASTE IS.

(sraliarma), they did not, it appears to me, seek to
recognize any sncli subordination of castes and ranks
founded on diversities of occupation as has been exhibited
in later times. In the ninetieth chapter of the Ayodhya-
Kanda, the inhabitants of the city of Ayodhya are
represented .as going out vith Bharata in the following-
order, — to seek Rama that he might occupy the throne
after his father Dasharatha’s death. I give their desig-
nations in tire singular, for the sake of convenience,
though the plural is used by the poet.

1 Manikdra,

Jeweller.

25 Bandi,\

. Panegyrist.

2 Kumhhakdra, ...

Potter.

26 Varata,

. Varata. I

U Yantrakarmakrit

, Mechanician.

27 Vaittrakdra, ..

. Worker-in-wilhes.

4 Astropajivi,

Man-of-arms.

28 Gdndhika,

. Compounder-of-

b ilayurika,

Peacock-keeper.

perfumes.

6 Taittirika,

Partridge-keeper.

29 Pdniha,

. Dealer-in-drinks.

7 Chhedaka,

Borer (as of pearls,

30 Prdvdrika,

. Garment-maker,

wood, etc.)

31 Sutrahdra,

. Uarpenter.J

8 Bhcdaka.

Splitter.

32 Shilpopajivi

. Artisan,

9 Dantakdra,

Ivory-worker.*

33 Hiranyakdra, ..

. Worker-in-gold.

10 Sudhakdra,

l)ealer-in-nectar.

34 Vriddhyupajivi,

U surer.

11 Gandhopnjtvi, ...

Perfumer.

35 Prdbdlika,

. Worker-in-coral.

12 Svarnakdra,

Goldsmith.

36 Skaukarika,

. Pork-dealer.

13 Kanakadhdraka,

Metallic-burnisher.

37 Matsyopajivi, ..

. Fishmonger.

14 Sndpaka,

Bather.

38 blulavdpa.

. Planter.

15 Chhddaka,

Dresser.

39 Kdnsyakdra, ..

. Brazier.

16 Vaidya,

Physician.

40 Chitrakdra,

. Painter.

17 Shaundika.

Distiller.

41 Dhdnyavikrdyaka Grain-dealer.

18 BhUpika,

Incense-dealer.

42 Patiyavikrayi ..

. Huckster.

19 Rajaka,

Washerman.

43 Phalopajivi,

. Fruit-seller.

20 Tantravdya,

Weaver.

44 Pushpopajivi, ..

. Flower-seller.

21 Rangopajil'i, ...

Actor.

45 Lepakdra,

. Plasterer.

22 Abhishtavaku, ...

Encomiast.

46 Stkapataya,

. Architect.

23 .S'uia ,

Suta.

47 Takshdna,

. Carpenter.

24 Mdghada,

Msighada.

48 Kdrayantrika, ..

. Instrument-maker,

* Literallj', toothworkcr. f Probably the equivalent of Bandijaii,

X The occupation of the Varata (man of a particular racc^ is unkno^vu.

§ Binding by cords, instead of nails, seems, judging from the etymology of bis name, to have
been originally his wont.

CASTE IN THE ETiCS— THE RAIMAYANA.

•225

!\'iodpaka,

Seedsman.

Jshtakdkdraka,...

Brickmaker.

Dadhimodakdra,

Cheesemaker.

Mdldkdra,

Gardener.

Chang irika-vik-

Seller-of- wood-sor-

rayi.

rel.*

Mdnsopajivi, ...

Flesher.

PatHkdvdpaka,

Planter-of-thc

Lodli-tree.f

Chkrnopajim, ...

SelIer-of-po\vders.

Kdrpdsika,

Cotton-dealer (or-
teazer).

Dhanushkdra, ...

Maker-of-bows.

Sutravikrayi, ...

Thread-seller.

Shastrakarma-

krii,

Armourer,

Kdndakdra,

Betelnut-seller.

TambuUka.

Leaf-seller.

Chitrambhajanti,

Draftsman.

Ckarmakdra, ...

Currier.

Lohokdra,

Blacksmith.

Shaldkdshalaya-

Maker-of-darts and

kartd,

javelins.

Viskaghdta,

Destroyer-of-poi-

sons.

Bhutagrahavi-

dJiijna,

Exorcist.

Bdlandmchikit-

Physician-for-chil-

sak,

dren.

70 Arakutakrita, ...

71 Tamrikuta[kvat'\,

72 Svastikdra,

73 Keshakdra,

74 Bhaktopasddha-

ka,

75 Brishtakdm,

76 Shaktukdra,

77 Shddvika,

78 Khandakdra, ...

79 Vdnijaka,

80 Kdchakdra,

81 Chatrdkdra,

82 V edhahashodka-

ka,

83 Khandasansthd-

paka,

84 Tdmropajivi, ...

85 Shrenhuahattara,

86 Grdmaghoshama-

hattara,

87 Shailmha,

88 Dijutavaitansilca,

Brass-founder.

Copper-founder.

M aker-of-figures
(on floors, etc).

Hairdresser.

Boiler (Cook).

Frier (Cook).

Baker.

Confectioner.

Bealer-in-candied-

sugar.

Merchant.

Cutter-of-crystal, or
glassmaker.

Umbrella-maker.

Refiner.

Maker-of-inlaid-

work.

Coppersmith.

Chief-of-a-guild.

Chief-of-the-town-

herds.

Player (or Tum-
bler).

Diee-player.

“ Followers of each occupation,” it is added, “and all
other dealers, in the city crowded together, except those
who were sick, old, and young. Brahmans, who were
pure, versed in the Vedas, and distinguished, thousands in
number, came along behind Bharata, who proceeded with
his luggage loaded on bullocks.” J To these Brahmans he
had given abundant largesses on the occasion of his having
performed the first funeral obsequies (shraddha) of his

* rrobabI.v for rinsing the teeth. t For what use ?

i Ram. ii. 90. In the northern recension (Bombay edition, ii. 83,
Ibh 161), the classes enumerated are much fewer than tho.se in this list.

226

WHAT CASTE IS.

father. Vasishtha advised him to occupy the throne,
promising that the people of the north, west, and south,
the Keralas (the people of the Konkan and Malabar), the
Dandadharas, and the dwellers on the coast of the ocean,
would bring him gems (in token of subjection,)*

In the list above-quoted there can be nothing more than
an attempt to represent the occupations of the times of
Rama, to which the poem is posterior. Whether or not it
belonged to the poem in its original form, it is impossible
to say. It shows an advanced state of society, as far as
diversities of occupation are concerned. What is most
worthy of notice in it is, that the profession ists which it
enumei'ates are mentioned seemingly without any refer-
ence to the rank usually recognized in caste arrangements.
Many of them, it is obvious, must have belonged to the
A'ryau race.

The Ramayana mentions some of the aboriginal tribes
of India with greater respect than that accorded to them
in Mann. Rama in an early stage of his wanderings near
the Ganges met “ the virtuous Guha, the beloved chief of
the Ni.«hadas.”t The occurrence of the Nishadas at this
place seems to indicate that the progress oftlie A'ryan race
in the eastern country was still but limited.'j: The forest

tribes represented by Hanuman, Sugriva, etc. were his
great auxiliaries in his alleged journey to Lanka. The
Palliovas, Shalcas (Sacoe, Scythians), Yavanas (lones or
Greeks) Kambojas, Varvaras (Barbaroi), Haritas, Kird-
Ram. ii. 88. 7.

f 3IfJTr^rr?r (THTffJrr Ram. i. l. 29. Bombay ed. et

in al. loc.

For Rama’s intercourse with Guha, see

Ram. ii. 52. Gor.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE EAMAYAXA.

tds, and Mlechchas are. spoken of as most valiant, tliongli
most impure, peoples, in the narrative of the contests
between Yashishtlia and Vishvamitra in the first book.
Tbe Chdadalas (tlie Gondaloi of Ptolemy*) are more than
once mentioned as conveying defilement to those coming
in contact with tliem. The sons, or disciples of Vasisbtha,
are represented as asking, in opposition to Vishvamitra,
originally a Kshatriya, bow tbe gods can eat the sacri-
fice when it is offered by a Kshatriya officiating as a
priest (i/ajala) for a Chdndala, and how Brahmans after
eating the food of a Chandala can go to heaven purified
by ATshvamitra.f Yet Rama is said to have called the
chief of the twice-born (tlie Brahmans) to kindle the fire
of the Homa, to repeat mantras, to scatter the Knsha
grass, and to oflier clarified butter to the fire, on the
occasion of the instalment on the throne of the monkev

•J

Bali, who did not recover from the wound of his arrow.;,';

The most extensive allusions to the provinces, tribes, and
nations of India which the Rdmayana contains are made in
the orders issued by Sugriva to his monkey-hosts to search
for Sita after her abstraction by Havana. Connected with
the East, mention is made (in addition to that of mythical
beings) of the Shakas, Pulindas, and Kalingas ; of tlie
Sumhhas, Videhas, Kashikosbalas, Magadhas, Danda-
kulas, Vangas, and Angas; and of the Kiratas, the black-
mouthed Parakas and Karhukas, Connected with the South,
are noticed the Mekalas, Utkalas, Chedas, Dasharnas,

* Ptol. Geo. vii.

f Rilni. 59. 11-15. See on this Muir’s Texts, i. p. 102.

t Rilin. ir. 25. 27-28.

228

WHAT CASTE IS.

Knkiiras, Antavvediis ; the Bhojas, Piindyas, the Vidar-
hlia.^s, Rishikas, Ashmakas, Pnliiidas, and Kalingas ; the
Aundras (Andhras ?), tlie Dravidas, Pimdras, Cholas, and
Keralas. Connected with the Weat reference is made to the
Surashtras, Yalhikas, Bhadras, and Ahhiras ; tlie Suviras,
Anlias, and Kolukas ; tlie Kaikeyas, Sindhusaiiviras ;
Anarttas ; the inhabitants of Main* and Anumarn, the
Shnrabhiras ; tlie Pahlavas, and the inliahitants of the
Panchanada, Kashmir, the city of Takshasldla, Shalaka,
and tlie Shalvas. Connected with the North, are mentioned
the Maisyas, Pnliiidas, Sharasenas, the Pracharas, the
Bhadrakas, the Kurus and Madrakas, the Gaiidharas, the
Yavanas, Shakas, Odras, Paradas, Vidhikas, Paiiravas,
Kinkaras, Chinas, and Aparchhias, the Tukharas, \arvaras
(or Barbaras), Kambojas, and Daradas, the Kiratas, Tan-
kanas, Bhadras, and Pashupalas, and the Uttara Knrus.t
The portion of the poem in which these names occur is
probably one of its later sections.

Rama on recovering his wife, and abandoning her
from suspicion after she had passed through the ordeal
of fire, and being inaugurated, is made to give to the
Brahmans “ thousands of thousands of cows, hundreds
of humh’eds of bulls, 30,000,000 goldings, conveyances,
food, clothes, beds and couches, and very many vil-
lages.”!

The Raiiiayana, so interesting in a literary point ofvieu,
ends with the glorification of the Brahmans, whose exal-
tation was ever in the view of its authors.

* Also given as Marabliumi.

i Ram. vi. 112. 84-G.

I Ram. iv. 40. 41. 43. 44.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAHABHAllATA.

229

2. The 3Iahdbharata, to wliicli we now proceed, is a
u ork of great size. It is generally spoken of as contain-
ing 100,000 stanzas ; hut this was certainly not its original
hulk. The first printed edition [puhlislied at Calcutta], writes
Professor II. H. Wilson, “ contains 107,389 shlokas ; hut
this comprizes the supplement called Hari\ansha, the
stanzas of which are 16,374, and Avhich is certainly not
a part of the original Mahahharata.”’*' In its first chapter
it is represented as repeated hy the Sauti (or Suta) Ugra-
shava, the son of Lomaharshana, to the Rishis of the
Naimisha forest. It is attributed to Krishna Dvaipayana,
or Vydsa (“ the ’extender”), who is said to have compre-
hended it, in its first edition, in 24,000, stanzas, hut without
the Upakhyaiias (“ inferior narratives”) devoted to the gods,
pitris (ancestorial manes), Gandharvas, and men, which
when added raised it to 100,000.| It is said to have been
communicated hy Narada to the Gods ; by Devala to
the Pitris ; hy Shuka, to the Gandharvas, and hy Vai-
shampayana, (who heard it from his master at a sacrifice of
king Janamejaya, the disciple of Vyasa,) to Men. It is said
of it that some Brahmans commence it Avith the word
Mami ; some, with cislika ; and some Avith i/joaric/tara,];
In all probability the editions of it have been numerous,
episodes and interpolations having been added to it at
various times, hy Brahmanical agreement. Its name,
according to some, means, ‘‘of-great-Aveight” ; and accord-
ing to others, Avho are probably right in their opinion,
“ AAdiat-pertains-to-the-great-(king)-Bharata.” Vyasa, to

* Introduction to Johnson’s Selections from the Mahiibharata.
t iUahabh. i. 1. 101 (p. 4). J Mahabh. i. 1. 52 (p. 3).

230

WHAT CASTE IS.

whom its original authorship is assigned, is said to liavc
been the half -brother of ViehitraA Irva (of the Lunar Race
of kings) by whose widowed wives (Ainba and Amhalika)
he had as sons Pandu and Dhritarashtra.* Pandu had
five sons, called the Paiidavas — Yuddhi.«hthira, Bliima,
and Arjnna by his wife Pritha; and Naknla and Sahadeva
by his wife JMadri. Dhritarashtra had the parentage of a
hundred sons ascribed to him, collectiyely called the Kau-
ravas as descended from king Kuril, of whom Dnryodhana
the oldest was the most distinguished. The subject of tlie
poem of the iMahahharata is a war for sovereignty, — the
possession of the throne of Hastinapura, — between tlie
Pandavas and Kauravas, now mentioned.

The story of the “ Mahabharata is divided into eioh-

•J O

teen Parvas, or “ Segments,” — the A'di, Sabha, Vana,
Virata, Udyoga, Bhishma, Drona, Karna, Shalya, Saup-
tika, Stii, Shanti, Anushashana, Ashvamedha, A'shram-
vasika, Mausala, Mahaprasthana, and Svargarohana, —
to the general contents of which it is proper for us to
allude, for the sake of marking the position of the inform-
ation which they afford on the subject of caste.

(1.) The A di Parva (or Parvva), the Introductory
Section, notices the general circumstances of the parties
Avith whom the Great War originated. Pandu, “ the
Pale,” was, on account of his pallor (perhaps intimating
as supposed by Professor H. H. Wilson a leprous taint)

* Krislina Dvaipayana is said to have been the son of the Sage
Pariishara by Satyavati before her marriage to Shantanu, tlie king of
Hastinapura. Vichitravirya, the .successor of Shantanu, dying Avithout
offspring, Vyasa, according to the custom of the times, raised up by
his AvidoAvs heirs to the throne.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAIIABHAKATA. 231

lield incapable of succession to the throne. H e conse-

quently retired to the Himalaya mountains, where his
sons were born to him or (according’ to the legends}
produced through his wives by various of the gods.
On his death they were introduced, at Hastinapura, to
their uncle Hhritarashtra, who, on being’ ultimately satis-
fied about their origin, took them under his care, and
educated them with his own sons, who treated them with
jealousy and dislike, setting fire on one occasion to the
house in which they resided with their mother Pritha.
The Pandavas, warned by this opposition, secreted
themselves in the forests, and disguised themselves as
Brahmans. Jt was only when they heard of the svayam-
vara, (or the choice of a husband after public trial of
capacity and prowess) of Draupadi, the daughter of
Drupada, king of Panchala, in which they were success-
ful, that they were again revealed in their own character.*
It is curious to observe the alleged polyandrism of their
common wife, which is in accordance with customs still
existing in Malabar and Travankur, the South-west
of India.

(2.) In the Sahl d, or Court, Parva, various movements
at H istinapura are recorded. Dhritarashtra, hearing of
the success of the Pandavas sent for them, and divided
the sovereignty between them and his sons, Yudhi.'shthira
and his brethren reigning at Indraprastha, and Dur-

* For a spirited poetical translation of the Passage of Arras, by
Prof. H. H. Wilson, see Quart. Or. Mag. March 1825. The passage
of Arras was at Panchala, and not at Ilastinapur as mentioned in the
title of this translation.

232

WHAT CASTE IS.

yodhana and his brethren reigning at Hastinapura, at no
oreat distance from one another. Jealousies and strifes

were tlie consequence of this arrangement. Yudhi.di-
thira, aided by his brothers, brought many of the inferior
})riiices of India under his sway. He then engaged in
celebrating the ceremonial of the Eajasuya, — in esta-
blishment of his pre-eminence, — at which these princes
did him obeisance. The sons of Dhritarashtra, dislikino-
his honours, but feigning a wish to promote the amuse-
ment going on, challenged him to a game, resembling
backgammon, at which he lost to Duryodhana his all —
including his kingdom, wife, brothers, and himself.
These were again restored to him on the intercession of
Dhritara.shtra ; but, on a second adventure, he incurred
the penalty of passing, with his brothers and their com-
mon wife Draupadi, twelve years in the forests and an
additional year in absolute obscurity, with liability to
renewal of the whole period in case of their discovery
in this interval.

(3.) In the Va>m, or Forest, Parva, we have an
account of the incidents which befell the Pandavas in
their banishment.

(4.) The Virala Parva brings to notice the intercom-
munion of the Pandavas with Virata, king of Matsya-
desha, to whom they revealed themselves after the
completion of the period of their exile, and whose assist-
ance they secured to avenge their wrongs.

(5.) The Udyoga Parva, or Chapter of Endeavour, re-
lates the preparations made by both sides for the terrible
war which was to follow. The assistance of king Krishna,
said to be an Avatara or Incarnation of Vi.'rhnu, was soli-

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAHA'BHA'RATA. 233

cited by both parties, to whom he was related in blood.
He gave Duryodhana the choice either of his own personal
assistance, or of that of his army. His military force was
preferred. In consequence of this he was left free to give
himself to the Pandavas, to Avhose cause, as the story
goes, and as the charioteer of Arjuna, he gave invaluable
assistance, although he afterwards had his own difficul-
ties in battle with Jarasandha and other foes.

(6.) The Bhishma Parva derives its name from Blnsh-
ma, the son of Shantauu by Ganga, or the Ganges- He
was the paternal uncle of Dhritarashtra, owing to whose
blindness he acted as regent while his grand-nephews
were under age. Though he did not approve of the con-
duct of Duryodhana to his cousins, he espoused the cause
of the Kauravas. In the first series of battles, to which the
sixth parva is mainly devoted, he commanded the forces
of Duryodhana. He was Avounded in fight. Of the battles
which took place under him and the generals by Avhom
he was succeeded, it is correctly said, “ Some of these
are very Homeric ; but, in general, the interest of the
narrative is injured by repetition, and the battles are
spoiled by the introduction of supernatural veapons,
which leaves little credit to the hero who vanquishes by
their employment.”*

7. The Drona Parva is named from Drona, the mili-
tary preceptor of both the Kauravas and Pandavas, who
succeeded Bhishma as commander of the forces of the
Kauravas, and proved a most competent warrior^

* Prof. H. H. Wilson’s Preface to Johnson’s Selections from the
Mahabharata.

234

WHAT CASTE IS.

8. The Karna Parva makes us acquainted with the
generalship, on the same side, of Karna, said to be the
son of A'ditya, the Sun, and of Pritha, before her marriage
to Pandu. It was the jealousy of his brethren, who
viewed him as a bastard, which is assigned as the reason
of his espousing the cause of their adversaries. He is
represented as the king of Anga.

9. The Shalija Parva gets its name from Shalya,
king of Madra, the successor of Karna. It was when
he was leader that Duryodhana was killed by Bhima in
a duel fought with Gadas, or maces of a formidable
character.

10. The Sauptika Parva, or Section-of-Sleep, is named
from a nocturnal attack made on the Pandavas, in the
repulsion of which they owed much to Krishna, their ally.

11. The or Female, Parva is named from the
lamentation of the females over the slain on both sides.
It also represents the leaders of the war as nearly over-
whelmed with grief. It contains some passages char-
acterized by affection and tenderness.

12. The Shdnti Parva is the section of Consolation,
following this grief. A great deal of the Hindu teach-
ing respecting the duties of kings and the means of
liberation from future births, put into the mouth of
Blnshma, has found in it a place. It has] evidently re-
ceived many interpolations.

(13.) The Anushdshana Parva, or Section of Law,
treats of general duties, the speaker also being Bhi.fhma,
about to die, and the principal listener being Yudhishthira.
Its didactic })ortions are enlivened by tales and fables,
according to Indian custom.

CASTE IN THE EPICS-TIIE MAHA'BIIA'KA'I'A. 2So

(14.) The AshvamedJta, or Horse-sacrifice, Parva,
gives us ail account of tlie great ceremonial of Yudliisli-
thira, on his attaining- to acknowledged sovereignt}^

(15.) The A'shvamavasika Parva, or Section-of-the-
Ilefuge, shows us Dhritarashtra, his wife Gandhari (the
daughter of the king of Gandliara), and their companions
retiring to a hermitage and there dying.

IG. The Mausala Parva, or Section- of- the-Clnh,
narrates the destruction of the race of Yadii of the Lunar
line, including that of Krishna, one of its members, which
■was followed by the submergence of Dvarika, his ulti-
mate capital.

The denomination and contents of the two remaining
books, we mention in the words of Professor H. H.
Wilson : —

17. “The seventeenth Book called the Mahaprasthanika
or Great- Journey, witnesses the abdication of his hardly won
throne, by Yudhishthira, and the departure of himself,
his brothers, and Draupadi to the Himalaya, on their way
to the holy mount Mem. As they ju’oceed, the influence of
former evil deeds proves fatal, and each in succession drops
dead by the way side, until Yudhishthira, and a dog that
followed them from Hastinapura, are the only survivors.
Indi-a comes to convey the prince to Svarga, or Indra’s
heaven ; but Yudhishthira refuses to go thither, unless

Admitted to that equal sky,

His faithful dog shall bear him company,

and Indra is obliged to comply.

18. “ The eighteenth Book, the Svargarohana [the De-
parture-to-Heaven] introduces Yudhishthira in his bodily

23G

WHAT CASTE IS.

form to heaven. To his great dismay he finds there Diir-
yodhana and the other sons of Dhritarashtra ; hnt sees none
of his own friends, his brothers, or Draupadi. He demands
to know where they are, and refuses to stay in Svaroa
without them. A messenger of the gods is sent to show
him where his friends are, and leads him to the ‘ fauces
grayeolentis Avemi,’ where he encounters all sorts of dis-
gusting and terrific objects. His first impression is to turn
hack ; hut he is arrested by the wailiims of well-remem-
hered voices, imploring him to remain, as his presence has
already alleviated their tortures. He overcomes his repug-
nance, and resolves to share the fate of his friends in health,
rather than abide with their enemy in heaven. This is his
crowning trial. The gods come, and applaud his disinter-
ested virtue. All the hoiTors that had formerly beset bis
path, vanish ; and his friends and kindred are raised along
^vith him to Svarga ; where they become again the celestial
personages that they originally were, and Avliich they had
ceased to be for a season, in order to descend along with
Krishna in human fonns amongst mankind and co-operate
with him in relieving the world from the tyranny of those
evil beings, who were oppressing the virtuous and propa-
gating impiety, in the chai-acters of Duryodhana, his
brothers, and their allies.”*

On the Harivansha, which is a supplement to the Maha-
bharata, we do not at present say anything.

In examining the Mahabharata in connexion with the
subject of our inquiry, we find a very decided social and
poetical exaltation of caste ; some historical traces of the
manner in which it acquired its ultimate establishment ;

* Preface to John.son’s Selections from the Mahabharata.

CASTE IN THE EPICS- THE MAHA BIIA'RATA. 237

mid some carious theoretical speculations as to its origin.
It is convenient to refer to it in the order of its hooks now
mentioned.

(1.) In the first section we have an account of a strug-
gle of the Brahmans with the Kshalriyas which, though of a
wild character, may he noticed as illustrative of the enmity
Avhich their mutual contests for supremacy during the rise
of the caste system must often have generated, I insert
the accurate abstract of it given hy Mr. Muir: — “ There was
a king named Kritavirya, hy whose liberality the Bhrigus,
learned in the Vedas, who officiated as his priests, had
been greatly emiched with corn and money. After he
had o'one to heaven, his descendants were in want of
money, and came to beg for a supply from the Bhrigus, of
whose wealth they were aware. Some of the latter hid
their money under ground, others bestowed it on Brah-
mans, being afraid of the Kshatriyas, while others again
gave these last what they wanted. It happened, however,
that a Kshatriya, while digging the ground, discovered the
money concealed in the house of a Bhrigu. The Ksha-
triyas then assembled and saw this treasure, and slew, in
consequence, all the Bhrigus, down to the children in the
womb. The widows, however, fled to the Himalaya
mountains. One of them concealed her unborn child in
her thigh. The Kshatriyas, hearing of its existence,
sought to kill it ; but it issued forth with a lustre which
blinded the persecutors. They, now humbled, supplicated
the mother of the child for the restoration of their sight ;
but she refeiTed them to her wonderful infant Aurva (into
whom the whole Veda, with its six Vedangas,* had entered),
* See, above, p. 216.

238

WHAT CASTE IS.

as the person who had rohhed them of their sight, (in re-
taliation of the slaughter of his relatives), and who alone
could restore it. They accordingly had recourse to him, and
their eyesight was restored. Ann a, however, meditated
the destruction of all living creatures, in revenge for the
slaughter of the Bhrigus ; hut his progenitors (pitris) them-
selves appeared, and sought to turn him from his purpose
by saying that they had no de.sire to he revenged on the
Kshatriyas ; ‘ whose violence the devout Bhrigus had not
overlooked from weakness, but had rather sought to pro-
voke, by concealing their money, (for which, in view of
heaven, they cared nothing,) in order, when weary of life,
to bring about their own destruction by the hands of those
irritated warriors, that so they might he exalted the sooner
to paradise.’ ‘ Destroy not the Kshatriyas, O sou,’ they
concluded, ‘ nor the seven worlds ; abandon your kindled
wrath, which nullifies the power of austeriUy.. Aurva,
however, argued against this clemency on grounds of jus-
tice and policy ; and urged that his wrath, if it found no
other vent, would consume himself. He was, however, at
length persuaded by the pitris to throw it into the sea,
where it found exercise in assailing the watery element : —
“ Having become the great Hayashiras, known to those
who are acquainted with the Veda, which vomits forth that
fil e, and drinks up the waters.”* This legendry, the ob-
ject of which is apparent, appears in various other forms in
the Mahabharata and other works. The phosphorescence
of the sea, seen when ships move along, is pointed to,
even in the present day, as the flashings of the Aurvagui,
or submarine fire of Aiu’va.

* Mahdbharatca, i. v. 6802, et seq. Miiir’s Texts, i. pp. 152.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAIIA'BIIA'RATA. 239

The celebration of the glory (mahatmya) of Brah-
mans is said to be one of the objects of the Mahabharata
itself.* Desiring’ the favour of Brahma and the Brah-
mans, it is said Vyasa formed the divisions of the Vedas,
■wherefore he is called Vyasa, tlie Divider.f

Without reference to the alleged origin of the castes
from the bodily members of the divinity, it is said, that
“ the known mental sous of Brahma are the six Mahar-
shis, Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, and
Kratu From these Maharshis, according’ to the con-
text, all created beings have sprung.

Concerning the eight kinds of marriage prescribed in
the Smriti — the Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, Prajapatya,
Asura, Gandharva, Rakshasa, and Paisacha, it is said
that the first four of them become the Brahman; the first
six, the Kshatriya ; the Rakshasa, a king ; and the Pai-
sacha, the Vitas and Shudras.§

The “Brahman,” it is said, “is the chief of bipeds, the
cow is the highest of quadrupeds ; the guru is the chief
of those that are venerable ; and a son is the chief of
those that are delectable.” |( Yet, in the context, it is
said that “ The Kshatra was created by the Brahma,
and the Brahma was formed by the Kshatra.”^!' Perhaps,
in the latter clause, the reference is to an allegation such
as we find in the Chhandogya Upanishad, that Brahma,
viewed in the Vedantic sense of the “ science-of-soul,”

« M. Bh. i. V. 2316. f Ib. v. 2417.

t Ib. V. 2518. § Ib. 2962-3.

11 M. Bh. i. 3044.

UOT wr?I'4r dr?T. Ib. V. 3377.

210

WHAT CASTE IS.

particularly as connected with a future state, originated
with the Kshatriyas.* Such an origination of this species
of learning is by no means improbable, the Kshatriyas
ultimately being freer for speculation than the Brahmans
enoao-ed in the cumbersome and minute rites and cere-

O O

monies which they succeeded in monopolizing. The
credit given to the Kshatriyas in this matter was counter-
balanced by the subsequent progress of the Brahmans in
this kind of learning. He who is chief among the
knowers-of-Brahma, is he who excels in the use of the
weapons-of-Brahma. For Drona, a Brahman, superiority
even in valour was claimed. f

In a passage, quoted by Mr, Muir, “ The Yavanas are
said to be descended from Turvasu, the Yaibhojas from
Druhyu, and the Mlechcha tribes from Ann.”;}: Remarks

* The pre-eminence of the Kshatriya in the case of research as to
soul is several times brought to notice in the Chhandogya Upanishad.
Mr. Eajendraliil Mitra, in the introduction to his edition and transla-
tion of this ancient piece, says (pp. 25-26), “ In explaining these
attributes of Om several anecdotes are related, in one of which (v. 8.)
a Kshatriya takes piecedence of two Brahmans in explaining the
subject of their discourse. Similar precedence is given to the Ksha-
trij’as in sections 3rd and 11th of the fifth chapter, and in the Kathaand
Vrihad Aranyaka Upanishads. Nor does this precedence appear to
be accidental. Pravahana, King of Panchiila (ch. v. sect. 3) goes the
length of asserting that the knowledge of man’s lot hereafter was first
attained by his own caste.” In reply to a question from a Brahman he
says, “ Since you have thus inquired, and inasmuch as no Brahman
knew it before, hence of all people in the world, the Kshatriyas alone
have the right of imparting instruction on this subject.”

t M. Bh. i. V. 6379.

i Muir, i. p. 178, M. Bh. i. v. 3533.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAHABHARATA. 241

of this kind, however, are probably speculative for the
nonce, and not historical.

The Rishi Vasishtha is (probably fictionally) associ-
ated with the Bharatas as their family-priest. He is
represented as installing Sainvarana as monarch of the
Kshatriya race, to be a horn (of power) over the whole
earth, by the simple repetition of the syllable Om.*

The co-operative subordination of the four Castes is
said to have been observed in the reign of Shantanu.j'
The Nishadas found by the Pandavasand Kauravas, on
their going out to hunt, are said to have been so black in
their skin and hair that the dogs began to bark at them,
and to have been particularly keen in hearing. This
is an indication of their long residence in India, and
of their comparatively uncivilized state.

Suicide is declared to be less heinous than Brahmacide,
for which there is no atonement {nishkriti).^

A curious leo-eud is related at length to enhance the
Avorth and might of the Brahman Vasishtha and to depre-
ciate his rival Vishvamitra, of Avhom we have already given
various notices. We take the following extracts of it from
Mr. Muir’s Texts, adopting his excellent translation.
“Having gained this great and self-restraining personage”
(Vasishtha), it is said, “ the Kings of Ikshvaku’s race
acquired the dominion of the earth. Possessing this
excellent Rishi, Vasishtha, for their priest, they offered
sacrifice. This Brahman-rishi performed sacrificial rites
for all those monarchs,as Vrihaspati does for the immortals.
Wherefore let some desirable Brahman, endoAved with
* M. Bh. i. 3731, sq. See on this, Muir, i. p. 135.

t M. Bh. i. V. 3977-8. t Ib. v. 4249. § M. Bh. i. v. C227.

242

WHAT CASTE IS.

good qualities, whose chief characteristic is religion, aud
who is skilled in Vedic observances, be selected as a family
priest. Let a well-born Kshatriya, who wishes to subdue
the earth, first appoint a priest, in order to acquire domi-
nion.” The story goes on to speak of the cow of Va-
sishtha. Vishvamitra offered “a hundred millions of cows,
or his kingdom, as her price. His offer was rejected. He
then said, ‘He was a Kshatriya, and Vasishtha a Brah-
man, whose function was devotion and study ; one of a
class who were gentle and destitute of power; — and that
as his offer was refused, he would act agreeably to the
characterof his caste, and take the cow by force.’ Vasishtha
told him to do as he proposed wdthont loss of time. Vish-
vamitra seized the cow', but she would not move from the
hermitage, though violently beaten with whip and stick ;
and demanded of Vasishtha why he did not help her.”*
In the same parva there occurs another legend
connected with the parties now mentioned, in which some
curious illustrations are given of Brahmanical demands
and exactions. Vasishtha was the priest of king Kal-
mashapada, son of Sudasa of the race of Ikshvaku, an
office desired also by Vishvamitra. The king, when
out hunting, desired Shaktri, the eldest of Vasi.ditha’s
hundred sons to get out of the road. “ The king must
according to all the principles of law cede the path to the
Brahman,” was the repl}^ The king did not yield, but
struck the Brahman with his whip. The Brahman, in
return, laid a curse upon the king, that he should be-
come a man-eater. The king was ultimatelj^ however,
about to give Avay, when Vishvamitra, who was passing
* M. Bh. i. V. CG38, et. seq. Muir’s Tests, i. pp. 9G-7.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAHABHARATA. 243

l)y, put a Rdksliasa into him, wlio urged him to mischief.
The king sent some human flesh to a poor Brahman,
^vllo also laid his curse upon him, to the intent that he
should become a man-eater. He consequently began
his work by devouring all the children of Vasishtha,
beginning with the oldest. Vasishtha attempted to
destroy himself, instead of destroying his rival Vishva-
mitra. ‘This divine sage hurled himself from the sura-
mit of ]\Ieru ; but fell upon the rocks as if on a heap of
cotton. Escaping alive from his fall, he entered a glow-
ing fire ill the forest ; but the fire, though fiercel}' blazing,
not only failed to burn him, but .seemed perfectly cool.
He next threw himself into the sea with a heavy stone
attached to his neck; but was cast up by the waves on
the dry land. He then went home to his hermitage;
but seeing it empty and desolate, he was again overcome
by grief, and binding himself with bonds he threw
himself into the river Vipasha, which was swollen by the
rains, and was sweeping along many trees torn from its
banks ; but the river severing his bonds, deposited him
unbound (Vipasha) ; whence the name of the stream, as
imposed by the sage.... He afterwards threw himself into
the Shatadni (Sutlej), which derived its name from
rushing away in a hundred directions on seeing the
Brahman brilliant as fire.’ In consequence of this he
was once more stranded. After roaming about over
many countries and forests, he again returned to his
hermitage ; and finding that his daughter-in-law Adrf-
.shyanti (Saktrl’s widow) was pregnant (with a child, who,
when born, received the name of Parashara), and that
there was thus a hope of his lineage being continued, he

244

WHAT CASTE IS.

abstained from further attempts on his own life. King
Kalmashapiida, whom they beheld in the forest, was about
to devour them both, when Vasi.?htha stopped him by a
blast from his mouth, and sprinkling him with water,
consecrated by a holy text, he delivered him from the
curse by which he had been affected for twelve years.
The king then addressed Vasishtha thus : ‘ Most excel-
lent sage, I am Saudas, whose priest thou art : What
can I do that would be pleasing to thee? Vasishtha
answered : ‘ This which has happened has been owing to

the force of destiny : go, and rule thy kingdom ; but O
monarch never contemn the Brahmans.’ The king re-
plied : ‘ never shall I despise the most excellent Brahmans,
but submitting to thy commands, I shall pay them all
honor.’ ”* In the Hindu literature there are other
legends of a similar character about these personages,
which it would contribute but little to our purpose here
to notice in detail. The whole have originated in allu-
sions in the Hig-Veda to both Vasi.'jhtha and Vishvamitra
having been family priests of king Sudasa, and at the same
time having been very jealous of one another’s influence,
and disposed to use their own power, and that of the gods
whom they invoked, to do one another mischief. They
testify merely to a struggle of the Brahmans with the
Kshatriyas in the establishment of their priestly mono-
poly,!— a struggle, the grounds of which are obvious.

(2.) In the Sabhd Parva we find a chapter^ which
* Muir’s Texts, i. 113-117. M. Bh. i. v. 6699, et seq.
j" See Texts of Mr. Muir, i. 95 et. seq., where the legends are pati-
ently collected and compared and accurately translated.

M. Bh. ii. 5. V. 983, et seq.

CASTE IN THE ETICS— THE MAHABHARATA. 245

throws much light on the geography of ancient India,
and of the spread of tlie Aryas and their institutions in
this great country. It is entitled Dtgvijaya, and treats
of the conquest of the four quarters of the world by the
brothers of Yudhi.?hthira, and of the gifts brought to him
by the nations at the time of his Rajasuya, or coronation
sacrifice. It has attracted much attention from European
orientalists, though, from the state in which the text is
found, it appears to liave been much neglected by native
Sanskrit scholars. It has been copiously illustrated both
by Professor Lassen and the late Professor H. H. Wilson,*
as well as compared with other portions of the Mahabha-
rata and of other literary works of the Hindus. The
following findings are principally the results of the re-
searches of Lassen. Two routes in advance offered them-
selves to the ATyans after their settlement in the Pancha-
nada, or Panjab, — one leading eastward in the direction of
the Yamuna and Ganges, and the other along the Sindhu
to the ocean. The valleys of the rivers rising in the
Himalaya also invited visitors ; and Kashmira became
an ancient seat of the Bralrmanic faith. The Daradas,
contiguous to this region, however, followed not this law,
being denominated Dasyus in Mann, as well as in the
Mahabharata. When the A'ryas reached the course of
the Yamuna, they found the Vindhya range with its

* See Lassen’s commentaries upon it in the first and second volumes
of his Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes, and in his Indische
Altherthumskunde, vol. i. p. 531 et. seq. A translation of this portion
of his invaluable work is given in the Oriental Christian Spectator, for
May and June 1857, and March and April 1862. For Professor
Wilson’s illustrations, see his Vishnu Purana, pp. 179-197.

246

WHAT CASTE IS.

many offsets and forests. Following the principal streams

tlie}^ reached the Sarayu and the Kaiishik'i, where their

earlier capitals Ayodhya and Mithila were founded.

From Madhyadesha where they now were, the roads, in

progress, went either across the Yiudhya, or round it on

both sides. Advances mav also have been made hv them to

%/ »

the west of the Aravali range, wdiere, near the range itself,
the country is not altogether barren. Sura.«htra, mainly
the peninsula of Gujarat, appears as early as the Ramayana
as an A ryan country. From Indraprastha on the Yamuna,
a road ran to the Narmada river l)y way of Ujja3dni ;
and another ran from the province of Magadha to the
upper portions of the Narmada, but as it passes through
the wild country' of the Gondas it would not be of much
use to the A'lyas.

The Kulindas of the western river-valleys of the Hima-
laya and the higher contiguous regions were, probably, at
the time of the Mahabharata, an A'lyan nation, never being
spoken of as Das\m3, though they must have had but little
contact with the Aryan civilization. The regions conti-
guous to the westei’n rivers Aiay also be supposed to have
been A'lyan, as the}' were easily accessible to a spreading
people. Eastward from the Upper Ganges the population
was non-ATvan, as were the Tanganas and Kiratas of the
Sarayu valley. Videha and Mithila, under the Hima-
laya, appear, in the pilgrimages, as A'lyan land. On the
whole, in the time of the Mahabharata, the A'ryan pro-
gress had not advanced farther to the east than w'e find it
in the Ramayana. In other directions, however, that
progress was very considerable. While in the Ramaj^ana,
Anga was the most south-eastern A'ryan land, w'e find in

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAIIABHARATA. 247

the Mahabliarata, powerful kings of the Pundras, the king
of Madagiri, of Banga, and of Tdmralipta, and even the
Suhraas on the sea-shore, mentioned ; while it tells us
that the months of the Ganges were frequented by pil-
grims. The Brahmanic law, propagated by the Gautamas,
had by this time reached the five principal nations of
eastern India, — the Angas, Pundras, Bangas, Suhmas,
and Kalingas. The river Vaitaranl, in Kalinga, is even
spoken of as a holy river. The worship of Shiva is said
to have prevailed in its neigtibourhood. This region was
not all subjected to Brahmanism. The Odras, Dravidas,
and A'ndhras appear as non-ATyan. In the Ramayana
the hermitage of Agastya is placed in the north of the
Upper Godavari; in the Mahabliarata it is said to have
been found by the Pandavas at the mouth of that river.
In the Mahabliarata, the tirthas of the Kumaris, or
Virgins, is found at the southernmost promontory of
India, still named from them Gape Comorin. The
hermitages of the teachers of the Dakhan moved south
with the ATyan settlements. A hermitage is spoken of
as beino- at Gokarna on the western coast. Prabhasa
was also there the locality of a Brahmanical institution,
but further to the north, possibly in the British Konkan.*
►Shurparaka was a tirtha both on the western and eastern
sea, in the latter case near the mouths of the Krishna.

No tirthas being mentioned as in the interior of the
Dakhan, we may conclude that at the time of the
Mahabliarata it was but little aflected by Brahmanism.
JMahishmati, in theMaisur, furnishes auxiliaries, liowever,

* So, Lassen. The Brahmans of Surashtra place it at the S. W.
corner of the Gujarat Peninsula.

248

WHAT CASTE IS.

to the Kurus through its king Nila. In connexion with
it, Agni is represented as granting unlimited liberty to
the women of that land in the choice of a plurality of
husbands, as among the well-known Nairs of Malabar to
the present time. The more southern part of the Dakhan is
treated as a country but little known ; and there the Dig-
Vijaya places the fabulous nations — the one- footed, the
black-faced, etc. The known nations of the south are
principally situated on the coasts, as the Keralas, Pandyas,
Dravidas, Odras, and Kalingas. Vibhishana, the brother
of Eavana, is spoken of as in Lanka.

The Payoshni, the river of-hot-water, of which a
synonym of corresponding meaning was the Tapti, was
at the period to which these notices refer rich in its Brah-
manical tirthas.* Yidarbha, hodie Berar, and Khandesh,
were to a certain extent ATyan, though many wild tribes
must then, as well as at present, have been residing
within their borders. The Godavari and Bhimarathi were
praised as holy rivers. Of the affluents of the Godavari,
however, only the Venva is mentioned. The Praveni is
the frontier of the holy land in the direction of the Dak-
shindpatha, now corresponding with the Dakhan. “If
we sum up these inquiries,” says Professor Lassen, “ we
perceive a considerable progress in the propagation
of the Aryan religion and dominion towards the south
when compared with the state of things pourtrayed in
the Edindyana. The Brdhmanic cultus had spread from
Surdshtra to Gokarna, on the eastern coast not only as
far as the mouths of the Ganges, but as far as those of

* It was perhaps from these settlements, sacred to Agni the god
of fire, that it received its name.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAIIABIIAKATA. 2t9

the Gochivari; and even beyond tliein, the kings of Kaliji-
ga and Manipura obeyed the laws of the A'ryan war-
riors. In the interior, in the south of India, we find no
more the solitary hermitages of the Ramdyana ; but the
banks of the Payo.^hm, of the Praveni, and of the Goda-
vari are studded with numerous seats of penitents, while
the A'ryan kings reign already in the countries to the
south of the great mountains of separation, which are even
traversed by caravans. Deeper in the south, however,
the country is yet non- A'ryan, with the exception of one
single region, that of the Mahishikas; and this, although
accepting Brahmans and their cultus, still preserves its
peculiar Dakhan customs. The people of the southern-
most Dakhan and Ceylon have entered into intercourse
with the inhabitants of the North, and have become known
to them by the products of their countries. Although
the conjecture that this connexion took place by sea is
not confirmed by the Epos, we possess for it the weightier
testimony of the Vedas, that the A'ryan Indians prose-
cuted navigation and undertook voyages : because the
Ashvins are praised for exhibiting their power by protect-
ing the hundred-oared ship of Bhujyu on the immeasurable
bottomless sea, and bringing it fortunately to the shore.

“ The INIahabharata affords also instructive hints on the
manner of the A'rvau propagation. No Aryan empire is
mentioned on the west coast to the south of Surashtra. The
hermitages, however, of the Brahmans, aiid the seats of
the Gods, extend as far as Gokarna ; and thus far
pilgrimages were undertaken. But no A'ryan nation is
mentioned. Gokarna is now the southern limit of the
domain of the Sanskrit tongue. At the time of Ptolemy,

250

WHAT CASTE IS.

tliis coast, and tlie interior country above it, was called
Ary aka ; and hence it must have been occupied by ATyans.
Consequently the iinmig-ration of the A'ryans into this part
took place later than the time of the Pandavas, and the
Brahmans appear here only as the precursors of A'ryan
possession. The same holds good also of the valley of the
Payoshni, in which, also, only seats of the Brahmans are
mentioned ; and the King of A'idarbha is not represented to
us as a conqueror, but as a founder of a Brahmanical state.
Consequently the Marathas also immigrated after the
heroic time. Baglana and the country near the som'ces of
the Godavari, i. e. the first seats of the Marathas upon the
high land, were not yet visited by the Pandavas. It is still
plainer handed down by the my thus, that in Mahishmati,
the Brahmans introduced their cultus themselves without
the assistance of waniors ; and by this also the conjecture
is confirmed, that the south of India was gained over to
Aryan civilization, not by forced conversions, but by means
of peaceable missions of Brahmans. For this we have also
the confinnation of Ptolemy, who mentions a race of Brah-
mans ill southernmost India on the Argalic gulf.”*

On the names of peoples and countries occurring in the
Dig-Vijaya much light has been cast not only by Professor
Lassen but by Professor H. H. Wilson ; but it is not
necessary for us to extend om’ notices of this and similar
portions of the Mahabharata.

The carrying on of war, at all hazards of life, is declared
to be the duty of the Kshatriya.t

(3.) Ill the Vana Parva, after it is again stated that

* Lassen’s Indische Altherthumskunde, i. pp. 576-78.

•f M. Bh. ii. V. 1951.

CASTE IN THE EPICS-THE MAHABHAKATA. 251

the Brahma was formed by the Ksliatra and the Kshatra
by the Brahma, the necessity of a Kshatra having a Brah-
man for instruction and advice is very emphatically set
forth. ithout an aiTangement of this kind any nation
or people, it • is said, will go to destruction. The power of
the Brahman and Kshatriya united together are as fire
and Avind in the consumption of the forest — iiTesistihle.*
With reference doubtless to the early settlement of the
ATyans near the Sarasvati, it is said, “ They Avho dwell to
the south of the Sarasvati and to the north of the Drishad-
vati dwell in heaven,” adding that the district is knoAvn by
the name of the very holy Brahmakshetra. OiiAvards it is
said that the disappearance (in the sands) of the Sarasvati
takes place from its reaching the borders of the Nishadas
(viewed as impure). “ Here is this delightful, divine, and
fluent river the Sarasvati. O King of men, (here is) what
is called the Vindshana (the disappearance) of the Sarasvati;
on accomit of the fault {dosha) of the commencement of the
region of the Nishadas, the Sarasvati, entered the earth. ”f
The story of Parshurama and the Kshatriyas is related
in this parva A\dth great particularity. The following ac-
curate notice of the legend is by Miv Muii’ : —

“Arjun, son of Kritaviryaand King of the Haihayas, bad, weare told,,
twenty-one hundred arms. He rode in a chariot of gold, the march
of which was irresistible. He thus trod down gods, yakshas, and
rishis, and oppressed all creatures. The gods and rishis applied to
Vishnu, and he along Avith Indra, who had been insulted by Arjuna,
devised the means of destroying the latter. About this time, the story
goes on, there lived a king of Kanyakubja called Gadhi, who had a
daughter named Satyavatl. The marriage of this princess to the rishi
Kichika, and the birth of Jamadagni, are then told in the same way as

* M. Bh. hi. V. 975-983. f Bh. hi. v. 5074. Ib, v. 10538.

252

WHAT CASTE IS.

above narrated in p. 85.* Jamadagui and Satyavati had five sons, the
youngest of whom was the redoubtable Parshurdma. By his father’s
command he kills his mother (in whom her hu-sband liad detected some
inward defilement), alter the four elder sons had refused this matricidal
office, and had in consequence been deprived of reason by their father’s
curse. At Parshurama’s desire, however, his mother is restored by his
father to life, and his brothers to reason, and he himself is absolved
from all the guilt of murder. His history now begins to be connected
with that of King Arjuna (or Kdrtavirya). The latter had come to
Jainadagui’s hermitage, and had been respectfully received ; but he had
requited this honour by carrying away by force the calf of the sage's
sacrilicial cow, and breaking down his lofty tree.s. On being informed
of this violence, Parshuriuna was filled with indignation, attacked and
slew Arjuna, and cut off his arms (which according to this version
were a thousand in number). Arjuna’s sons in return slew the sage
Jamadagui, in the absence of Parshurama. The latter vowed to des-
troy the Avhole Kshatriya race, and executed his threat by killing first
Arjuua’s sons, and their followers. “ Twenty-one times,” it is said, he
swept away all Kshatriyas from the earth, and formed five lakes of blood

in Samantapanchaka ; in which he satiated the manes of the Bhrigus

He then performed a grand sacrifice to Indra, and gave the earth to the
officiating priests. lie bestowed also a golden altar on the sage

Kashyapa This, by his permission, the Brahmans divided among

themselves, deriving thence the name of Khan avayanas. Having
given away the earth to Kashj'apa, Parshurama himself dwells on the
mountain IMahendra. Thus did enmity arise between him and the
Kshatriyas, and thus was the earth conquered by Hama of boundless
might.”t

This legend, ^Yhicll occurs in other forms elsewhere,
ma}’^ have arisen from a very small beginning, to which
we have already referred.^ The only historical fact on
which it can be founded, is that there were olden quarrels

* See p. 237-8 of this work.

I Muir’s Texts, i. pp. 156-7 M. Bh. iii. v. 1 1070, et .seq.

I See before, p. 148.

CASTE IN THE EPICS- THE MAIIABIIAKATA. 253

about prerogative between Brahmans and Kshatriyas.
Its intended lesson is the danger of Kshatriyas trifling
Avith Brahmans.

In connexion with a description of the first age, put
into the month of Hannman, it is mentioned that Brali-
mans, Kshatriyas, Vaisln’as, and Shndras strictly observed
the institutes of their oavu castes.* Tliis representation Av^as
intended as a hint for the present. In the context, sacri-
ficing (for one’s self), giving of gifts, learning the Vedas,
are said to be common to the three twice- born castes;
Avhile sacrificing for others and teaching, and taking alms
belong to the Bndimans, — protection (pdlana) being the
duty of the Kshatriyas, supporting (poahana) that of the
Vaish}"as, and service (slmshrushd) that of the Shudras.f
The King Xahnsha, the son of A yus, and grandson
of PnrnraA'as mentioned in the Vedas, (avIio is represent-
ed, in the first parva;J: as lorcing even the Rishis to pay
him tribute, and to carry him upon their shoulders, in a
palanquin,) is represented as found by V udhishthira as a
serpent, into Avhich state he had been brought by the curse
of one of them, Agastya Muni, Avhom he had touched
Avith his foot. He is made to be bcAvail his pride and to
ask deliverance from Yudhishthira, whose name had been
given as Ins saviour by the Muni, on his begging his
pardon. It is added that Yudhishthira gave him a celestial
form in Avhich he ascended to heaven. The curse and
its limitation Avere of course both from the Brahman. §

M. Bli. iii. V. 11241. f It), iii. v. 11298 etseq.

f Ib. i. V. 3151, et seq.

§ M. Bb. iii. v. 12408, et seq. Muir’s Texts, i, G8-9.

254 WHAT CASTE IS.

In the course of the alleged conversation between
Yudhishthira and the Serpent now referred to, some of
the principles of caste as affected by the progress of Indian
society, are curiously brought forward.

“ The Serpent says : Who, 0 king Yudhishthira, is

the Brahman, and what is Knowledge? Declare your
high judgment (in the case), I make inquiry of thee.
Yudhishthira says : He in whom are seen truth, libera-

lity, forgiveness, virtue, innocence, austere-devotion, and
compassion, he, O king of Nagas, is according to the
Smriti a Brahman. Knowledge, O Serpent, is Parabrah-
ma, without pain, without pleasure, whither, upon having
gone, they have no grief ; what more do you wish to be
known ? The Serpent replies : The establishment of

the four castes is with proof (authorized), and Brahma is
also true. But even in Shudras, O Yudhishthira, are |
truth, liberality, wrathlessness, innocence, abstinence from j
killing, compassion. (The) knowledge (of Brahma ?)
is also without pain or pleasure, O Lord of men ; and
without these (sensations), there is no other thing but
Knowledge. Yudhishthira says : When in a Shudra j

there is a mark of virtue, and it is not in a Dvfja, the I

Shudra is not a Shudra and the Brahman is not a Brah- >

man. The person in whom that mark of virtue is seen, jj

O Serpent, is a Brennan; and the person in whom it is d

not seen is a Shudra.”* The conversation is continued (I
here avail myself of Mr. Muir’s translation of it) : “ The

Serpent said : If you regard him only as a Brahman

w'hom his conduct makes such, then caste is of no avail
until deeds are superadded to it. Yudhishthira replies:

* M. Bli. iii. vv. 124G9, et seq.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAHABIHVRATA. 255

O most sapient Serpent, the caste of mankind is difficult
to determine, owing to the general confusion of classes.
Men of all castes are continually begetting cliildren on
women of all castes : the speech, the mode of propaga-
tion. tlie. birth, the death, of all men are alike. This also
is established by the word of rishis, and is authoritative, —
‘ We who sacrifice,’ etc. Hence those who have insight
into reality consider virtuous character to be the thing
mainly to be desired. The natal rites of a male are
enjoined to be performed before the section of the umbil-
ical cord. [See Mann ii. 29]. Then Savitri (the Gayatri,
Manu, ii. 77), becomes his mother, and the religious
teacher his father. [Manu, ii. 170, 225.] He is on a
level with a Shudra till he is born in the Veda. [Manu,
ii. 172.] In this division of opinions Manu Swayam-
bhuva hath so declared. Again, though the prescribed
ceremonies have been fulfilled? Yet, if good conduct is
not superadded, there is considered to be, in that case,
a great confusion of castes. I have before declared him
to be a Brahman who aims at purity of conduct.”* There
is something here like a statement of certain Buddhist
objections to Caste, though with but a feeble reply to them.

An account of the Deluge, much extended, and different
from that of the Shatapatha Brahmana which we have in-
troduced into a former part of this work, [ is given in the
parva under notice. It differs from that which we have
cpioted, in this among other respects, that it does not men-
tion the original residence of IManu.];

* Muir’s Texts, i. 197. f See, before, p. 167 et seq.

J M. Bh. iii. 12751, et seq. The passage has been extracted and
translated by Mr. Muir in his Texts, ii. 331-2.

256

WriAT CASTE IS.

The glory of the Brahman is emphatically set forth in
the following- instructions given to Yiulhislithira by the
Rishi Markandeya, particularly in their conclusion : — “ Tlie
person possessed of these three piu ities — purity of speech,
purity of conduct, and purity hy water (ablution) — is \Aorthy
of heaven ; of this there is no doubt. The Brahman who
performs SandJujd morning and evening, repeating the
holy, divine (jdyatri, the mother of the Yedas, that Brah-
man becomes hj' this divine (object) free from sin (tmshta-
Idlvishah) . He is not to grieve for being a receiver of
gifts, even though of the earth and ocean (that is of the
whole world). Whatever planets, as the sun in the
heavens, etc., may he fearful to him, tliey become to him
prosperous, and more and more prosperous tor aye. Pursu-
ing evil devils (phhitdshindh,)* oi horrible form and great
bulk, do not ill-treat the Brahman. From teaching, sacri-
ficing, and taking gifts from others (whatever errors may
occur?), there is no fault, as Brahmans are like the blazing
tire (which consumes everything). Whether ill-instructed
or well-instructed, whether vulgar or refined. Brahmans
are not to he disregarded, being as fire concealed in ashes.
As kindled fire in the hurning-ground (for the dead) is
without fault, so the Brahman learned or unlearned is a
great deity.”f

Even the Hakshasa Vihlnshana, is made to utter respect
for the Brahmans, by declining to use their instrument

* Literally, flesli-eaters.

■]• M. Bh. iii. vv. ■ 13131-13438. The following is the Sanskrit of
the two last Shlokas of this passage : —

41 1114141: k?4141^4^1 1 W1^'4R14H^-41 i;41?r!l:il

NO i

4311 ^JT^IR flRlSTl: 414^1 %4 l-'STR 1 44 14S:Rr4§:r^ 41 41?T'41 444 1144 II

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAIIABIIAPvATA.

257

(that of prayer), while his brother Ravana was beseeching*
Brahma to make him invisible to liis foes.*

(4.) Ill the Vinka Parva, we have the distribution of
works for the four castes respectively mentioned, as by
“ Svayambluiva” (Mann), a proof that this portion of the
work at least is posterior to that Code.f

(5.) Ill the Udyoga Parva there is a repetition, with
^■ariations, of the story of the haughty king* Nahusha,
evidently again brought forward to show the danger of
ill-treating the Brahmans. J

(6.) In the Bhishma Parva occurs the well-kiiowu
Bhagawad-Gita, or Song-of-God, containing the discourse
between Krishna and Arjima, in which the latter party
relates his humane scruples about going into battle when
the crisis of the great war occurred, and the former gives
a reply, which, to use the words of Mr. Milman, breathes
“ the terrible sublime of pantheistic fatalism.”^ The
system of philosophy on which this remarkable episode
is, in the main, founded, is that of the Voga of Panlayijali,
in Avhich liberation from further births, and absorption
into the divine Spirit, (the great objects of desire accord-
ing to Hindu speculation), are made dependent on the
knowledge of Spirit and the practice of contemplative and
ascetic devotion, so far as indifference to pleasure and
pain and the suppression of emotional action are concern-
ed. It is not altogether consistent or homogeneous

* M. Bh. iii. 15913. Muir, ii. 433.

f M. Bh. iv. 1457. So also in vv. 830-35 ; 1550-Gl ; v. 3454 et
seq., etc. See Muir i. pp. 69-73.

I M. Bh. V. V. 345, et seq.

§ Quarterly Review, vol. xiv.

258

WHAT CASTE IS.

tliroug'liout, and as pointed out by William de Humboldt,
who viewed it as an important-cuntribution to philosophy,
has itself been probably 'the subject of additions and
interpolations, from various hands.* Notwithstanding
its speculative character, it professes to show respect to
what may be called the Hindu institutes. Its notices of
Caste are very scanty. The existence of the mixed
classes (Varaa-sankara) it traces to vicious women.f
It is probable that at the time it was composed, all il-
legitimate children were reckoned to belong to the mixed
castes, which, in the first instance, had originated from
the division of labour. Fighting it represents as the
supreme duty of the Kshatriya.^ Probably with seces-
sions to Buddhism, more than secessions from Caste, in
view, but applicable to both, it sets forth the general apho-
rism : — “ One’s own religion, though worthless, is better
than the religion of another, however well instituted (or
followed) ; one’s own religion is profitable at death, while
that of another beareth fear.”§ It represents Kri.dma
(as the Supreme) saying : “ They w'ho are of the womb-

of-sin, women, Vaishyas, and Shudras shall go the
supreme journey, if they take refuge with me; how much
more my holy worshippers, the Brahmans, and the
Rajarsliis.”|| In connexion with its notices of the three
qualities of truth passion (raja), and darkness

* For a translation of Humboldt’s Essay, by the late Rev. G. II.
Weigle, see a valuable edition of the Bhagawad-Gita in Sanskrit, Cana-
rese, and English, published by the Rev. J. Garrett, at Bangalur, 1849.

t M. Bh. vi. V. 872.

X M. Bh. vi. V. 909. § M. Bh. vi. v. 958.

11 M. B. vi. 1203-4.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAHABIIARATA.

250

(tama), it says, that, “ The sacrifice which is performed
without the ordained rites, witliout the distribution of
food, without the mantras, without dakshina, and without
faith is of the quality of darkness.”* The respective
duties and qualities of the Brahman, Kshatriya, and
Vaishya, it declares in the usual form, as already given
by us on its aiithority.f

(7.) In the Drona Parva, the Shudras, along with other
peoples near the Indus, are mentioned as a people, J as in
the Dig-vijaya, — a position consistent with that which we
have supposed to have originally belonged to them.§

(8.) In the Kama Parva, it is mentioned that in the
appointment of Karna to succeed Drona as general. Brah-
mans, Kshatriy as, V aishyas, and Slnldras -were unanimous
(^sunmatdh).^

In the same section the following passage occurs : — “The
Bi'dlnnans, accorchng to the Shruti, were created by Brahma
from his mouth ; the Kshatra from his arms ; the Vaishyas
from his thighs ; and the Shudras from his feet. Other
distinctions of caste called Pratiloma and Anuloma w'ere
produced from thein.^ This, 0 king, was from intercourse
Avith strange females (those not belonging to one’s owm caste).
The Kshatriyas, according to the Smriti, are protectors,
collectors (of tribute), and givers-of-largesses. Sacrificing
for others, teaching, and taking pure alms, belong to the
Brahmans. Brahmans are established on the earth for the
advantage of the people. The Vaishyas are in duty

* M. Bh. vi. V. 1439.
X M. Bh. vii. 183-4.

II M. Bh. viii. 390.

j See before, pp. 20, 38, 45.
§ See before, p. 111.

If See before, p. 63.

260

WHAT CASTE IS.

obligated to agriculture, keeping of cattle, and liberality.
The SJmdras are appointed sen ants to the Brahma, Ksha-
tra, and Visha, Tlie Sutas are appointed servants of the
Brahma and Kshatra. It is not heai'd (never enjoined) that
a Kshatriva should be a servant to a Suta. I, a Munl-
dhuhhishikta, (Shalya is addressing Dmyodhana) who am
born of a Rajai’shi family, O king, and wlio am addressed
as a 3Iaharat1ia, am to be served and praised by Bandis.
T who am, as above signified, O king, do not wish to be the
charioteer of a Sutaputra.” “Having got so dishonoured,
I will certainly not fight. Having asked (leave) of you,
O son of Gaudharl, I take my departure to my own home.”*
Duryodhana afterwards reminds Shalya, that a chaiioteer
may be superior to the person driven (as was exemplified
in the case of Kri.«lma and Arjuna).')' All this is in
consistency Avith the orthodox view of Caste, as found in
ISIanu and elsewhere. J

In the context of the passages now referred to, much is
said of the impurity of the Madrakas, and Gandharas,
Avhose king was Shalya. § Of the adjoining teriitories of
the Bdh'ikas, the neighbours of the Madi-as, a most curious
account is given, in a passage thus summarily translated by
Professor H. H. Wilson : —

“ An old and excellent Brahman reviling the countries Bahilva and
hfadra in the dwelling of Dhritarashtra, related facts long known, and
thus described those nations. External to the Himavan, and beyond the
Ganges, beyond the Sarasvati and Yamuna rivers and Kurukshetra,
between five rivers, and the Sindhii as the sixth, are situated the
Biihikas, devoid of ritual or observance, and therefore to be shunned.

* M. Bh. viii. v. 1367 et seq. f M. Bh. viii. v. 1621.

I See before, p. 53, et seq. § M. Bh. viii. 1837, et seq.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAIliBIIARATA.

201

Theii fig-tree is named Govardhana (i. e. the place of cow-killing) ;
their market place is Subhadram, (the place of vending liquor : at least
so say the commentators), and these give titles to the doorway of the
royal palace. A business of great importance compelled me to dwell
amongst the Bi'ihikas, and their customs are therefore well known to me.
The chief city is called Shakdla, and the river Apagd. The people are
also named Jarttikas ; and their customs are shameful. They drink
spirits made from sugar and grain, and eat meat seasoned Avith garlic ;
and live on flesh and wine : their women intoxicated appear in public
places, Avith no other garb than garlands and perfumes, dancing and
singing, and vociferating indecencies in tones more harsh than those of
the camel or the ass ; they indulge in promiscuous intercourse, and are
under no restraint. They clothe themselves in skins and blankets, and
sound the cymbal and drum and conch, and cry aloud Avith hoarse
voices. “ We Av ill hasten to delight, in thick forests and in pleasant
places ; Ave will feast and sport ; and gathering on the high Avays spring
upon the travellers and spoil, and scourge them.” In Shakala, a female
demon (a Eiikshasi) on the fourteenth day of the dark fortnight sings
aloud, “ I will feast on the flesh of kine, and quaff the inebriating
sjflrit attended by fair and graceful females.” The Shiidra-like Balnkas
have no institutes nor sacrifices ; and neither deities, manes, nor Brah-
mans accept their offerings. They eat out of Avooden or earthen plates,
nor heed their being smeared Avith Avine or viands, or licked by dogs,
and they use equally in its various preparations the milk of CAves, of
camels, and of asses. Who that has drank milk in the city Yugandhara
can hope to enter Svarga ? JBa/ii and Hika Avere the names of two fiends
in the Vipasha river; the Bdhikas are their descendants and not of the
creation of Brahma. Some say the Amttos are the name of the people,
andBahikaof the Avaters. The Vedas are notknoAvn there, nor oblation,
nor sacrifice, and the gods Avill not partake their food. The Prasthalas
(perhaps borderers), Madras, Gandhdvas, A'rattas, IGiashas, Vasas,
Atisindhus, (or those beyond the Indus), Saum'ras, are all equally in-
famous. There one who is by birth a Brdlnnan, becomes a Kshatriya, or
aVaisliya, or a Sliudra, or a Barber, and having been a barber becomes
a Brdlman again. A virtuous Avoman Avas once violated by Aratta
ruffians, and she cursed the race, and their Avomen have ever since been
unchaste. On this account their heirs are their sister’s children, not

262

WHAT CASTE IS.

tlieir own. All countries have their laws and gods : the Yavanas are
•wise, and pre-eminently brave ; the Mlechchas observe their own ritual,
but the MadraJ:as are worthless. Madra is the ordure of the earth : it
is the region of ebriety, unchastity, robbery, and murder : fie on the
Panchanada people ! fie on the Aratta race !"'

From tliis it is evident that if ever the Madras and
Bahikas (or Yahlkas) were under A'ryan influence, they
had contrived to make their escape from it at the period
liere represented. Some of the Caste customs of the
A'ryas are here revealed by our turning- the vices.charged
hv the narrator into virtues.

(9.) In the Shahja Parva, there are several stories
settino’ forth the struggles of Vishvamitra to attain Brah-

o o o

manhood. f Their intended lesson is like that pertaining
to this matter found elsewhere : — The Brahmanhood,
after the formation of the first of the race of the head-
horn, was held was to be a privilege of birth, except when
superhuman efforts were made by the favour of the gods
to obtain its advantages.

(10.) In the Sauptika Parva, Ashvathama, the son
of Droua, a Brahman, apologizes for his knowledge of war
and the affairs of tlie Ksliatriyas by pleading his own
povert}^ the sole cause of his abandonment of Brahma-
nical works.J Poverty is a great plea for remissness in
caste observances even at the present day.

(11.) In the Stri Parva, we find nothing bearing on
Caste. The writers and framers of the Mahabh^rata have

* M. Bh. viii. 2026, et seq. Asiatic Researches, vol. xv. pp. 108-9.

•|- M. Bh. ix. V. 2265, et .seq. ; v. 2357, et seq. These passages are
trauslatedin Muir’s Texts, i. pp. 200-1 ; 202-204.

1 M.Bh. ix.v. 122-5.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAHABHARATA.

2()3

refrained from discussing any of the questions raised
respecting it with mourning women.

(12.) In the Parva, Arjuna teaches that death

in battle is better than all sacrifices for a Kshatriya.

In the Itajadharmdmishdsana section of this division of
the Bharata, there is much said on the religion and duty of
kings, corresponding with what we find in the Law-books. *

The legendry respecting Parashurama and the alleged
destruction of the Kshatriyas here appears in a very
advanced and extended form. The followino- is an

abridgement of what is found respecting it in Mr.
Muir’s Texts : —

“ Jamadagni was father of Parashurama, “ who became perfect in
all science, thoroughly versed in archery, and the slayer of the Kshatri-
yas, himself violent as flaming fire. By propitiating Mahiideva he
obtained among other things the irresistible axe, (parasliu ), from which
his name is derived. Arjuna, son of Kritavirya, kingof the Haihayas,
is here represented as a dutiful and religious monarch who, at an
Ashvamedha (horse-sacrifice) bestowed on the Brahmans the earth Avith
its seven continents and mountains, Avhich he had conquered Avith his
thousand arms.” He had, however, been cursed by the sage A'pava
(Vasishtha) to haAm those arms cut off by Parashurama. Being of a
meek, pious, kind, and charitable tlirn of mind, the valiant Arjuna
thought nothing of the curse ; but his sons, avIio Avere of a barbarous
disposition, became the cause of his death. Unknown to their father,
they took aAvay Jamadagni’s calf, and, in consequence Parashui'aina
attacked Arjuna, and cut oflf his arms. His sons relatiated by kilhng
Jamadagni. Parashurama having voAved in consequence to SAveep
aAvay all Kshatriyas from the earth, seized his Aveapons, and slaughter-
ing the sons and gi-andsons of Arjuna, with thousands of the Haihayas,
he cleared the earth of Kshatriyas, and converted it into a mass
of ensanguined mud. Then, being penetrated by deep compassion, he
Avent to the forest. After thousands of years had elapsed he Avas

* See before, pp. 37-44.

204

WHAT CASTE IS.

taunted by Pardvasu, the grandson of Visbvamitra, with having failed
to fulfil his threat, and vainly boasted in public of having killed all the
Kshatriyas, (as many of that tribe were there present), and with having
withdrawn from fear ; while the earth had again become overrun by

them the K.shatriyas who had before been spared had now grown

powerful kings. These however, being stung by Paravasu’s taunt,
Parashurama now slew, with their children, and all the yet unborn
infants as they came into the world. Some, however, were preserved
by their mothers. Having twenty-one times cleared the earth of
Kshatriyas, he gave her as a sacrificial fee to Kashhyapa at the con-
clusion of the Ashvamedha. Kashyapa, making a signal with his hand,
in which he held the sacrificial ladle, that the remaining Kshatriyas
should be spared, sent away Parashurama to the shore of the southern

ocean Having received dominion over the earth, Kashyapa made

it an abode ofBrahmans, and himself Avithdrew to the forests. Shiidras
and Vaishyas then began to act lawlessly toAvards the Avives of the
Brahmans, and, in consequence of there being no goveimment, the
Aveak Avere oppressed by the strong, and no one was master of his
property The earth being distressed by the Avicked, in conse-

quence of that disorder, descended to the loAver regions, etc. This
goddess earth then supplicated Kashyapa for protection, and for a king.
She had, she said, preserved among the females many Kshatriyas AA'ho
had been born in the race of the Haihayas, and Avhom she desired for
her protectors.” Among these are mentioned Sarvakarma, the son
of Saudasa, “Avhom the tender-hearted priest Pariishara had saved,
performing, though a Brahman, all menial offices, ( Sarvakaiinam)

for him like a Shudra, — whence the prince’s name ‘All these

Kshatriyas’ descendants have been preserved in different places If

they protect me I shall continue unshaken. Their fathers and grand-
fathers Avere slain on my account by Kama, energetic in action. It is
incumbent on me to avenge their cause. For I do not desire to be
always protected by an extraordinary person [? stich as Kashyapa?] ;
but I Avill be content Avith an ordinary ruler (?). Let this be speedily
fulfilled.’ Kashyapa then sent for these Kshatriyas Avho had been
pointed out by the earth, and installed them in the kingly office.”*

*_ Muir's Texts, i.pp. 157-1.59. M. Bli. xii. v. 1745, et seq.

CASTE IN THE EPICS- THE MAHABHAKATA. 2(55

I’liis legeiidry, as we have already hinted,* may have
had but a very slender beginning. For its extension
there may have been a strong motive at the time it
assumed the form now given. This motive, 1 venture to
think, was the disparagement of the Kshatriyas at the
time when the Buddhist faith, patronized by the Ksha-
triyas, began to prevail. But this matter we may after-
wards notice.

Prithu, (the son of Vena, mentioned as a refractory
king by Manuf), is represented in the Parva before us
as very respectful to the chief of the twice-born. “ In
thought, deed, and^^ word,” it was enjoined upon him,
“ take on thyself, and constantly renew the engagement
(pratijnd) to uphold the earthly Brahma (Vedic ser-
vices)... And promise that thou will exempt the Brah-
mans from punishment, and preserve society from the
confusion of castes. The son of Vena then addressed the
gods headed by the Rishis: ‘ The illustrious Brahmans,

the chief of men, shall be venerated by me.’J In this
veneration much moral excellence was concentrated, ac-
cording to Brahmanical notions. In the context, a fanci-
ful derivation of the name Kshatriya is thus given : —
“The Kshatriya is so called from saving the Brahmans
from Ksliata (hurt).”§

Long discussions are carried on between Bhishma and

* See before, p. 148. t Manu, vii. 41.

J M. Bh. xii. V. 2221, et seq.

§ 3'^qfr- M. Bh. xii. v. 2247. Ksliatra

really means “ power” ; and Kshatriya, “ a possessor of power.” See
before p. 108.

266

WHAT CASTE IS.

Yudbishthira on the subject of Caste, in Tvhicb the
exaltation of the Brahman, his four ashramas, and his
six works, are specified in tlie usual form ; while it is said
that the Kshatriyas are to exercise their power in subor-
dination to and witli the advice of the Brahmans.

In connexion with the matters now referred to, some
light is cast by the following passage (translated by Mr.
Muir) on the accommodations made by the Aryas with
the Dasyus, when they were able to proselytize them.
Blu.dima repeats in it in a conversation alleged to have
taken place between king Mandhata and Indra: —

“ The Tavanas, Kiratas, Gandhdras, Chinas, Shai'aras, Varvaras,
Shakas, Tusharas, Kankas, Pahlavas, Andhras, Madras, Paundras,
Puliudas, Raraathas, Kambojas, men sprung from Brahmans and
from Kshatriyas, persons of the Vaishya and Shiidra castes — ‘how shall
these people of dilferent countries practise duty, and what rules shall
kings like me prescx'ibe for those who are living as Dasyus ? Instruct
me on these points, for thou [Indra] art the friend of our Kshatriya
race.’ Indra answers : All the Dasjnis should obey their parents, their
spiritual directors, and anchorites, and kings. It is also their duty
to perform the ceremonies ordained in the Vedas. They should sacri-
fice to the Pitris, construct wells, buildings for the distribution of
water, and resting places for travellers, and should on proper occasions
bestow gifts on the Brahmans. They should practise innocence,
veracity, meekness, purity, and inofiensiveness ; should maintain their
wives and families ; and make a just division of property. Gifts
should be distributed at all sacrifices by those who desire to prosper.
All the Dasyus should offer costly pdka oblations. Such duties as
these, which have been ordained of old, ought to be observed by all
people. Mandhatri observes : In this world of men, Dasyus are to
be seen in all castes, living, under another garb, even among men
of the four orders (dsh’amas). Indra replies : ‘ When criminal justice
has perished, and the duties of Government are disregarded, mankind
become bewildered through the wickedness of their kings. When
this Krita age has come to a close, innumerable mendicants and

CASTE IN THE EPICS-TIIE MAHABIIIrATA. 267

hypocrites shall arise, and the four orders become disorganized. Dis-
regarding the excellent paths of ancient duty, and impelled by passion
and by anger, men shall fall into wickedness.”*

Tliougli this is certainly not one of the etu*lier portions
of the INIahabharata, it is possessed of importance, as
illustrating the method of bringing foreign tribes within
the pale of Brahmanism. The prophecy with which it
concludes shows that it w'as written when the glory of that
system of social life and religion was, in the Indian point of
view, beginning to pass away. Curious matter is added to
it respecting the evils which occur when Kshatriyas fail to
discharge their duty of protection. f In the context, the
orthodox view of the origin of the four primitive castes is put
into the mouth of the god Vayu, who concludes by saying to
Bhishma, “ The Brahman was born immediately after the
earth, the Lord of all creatures, to protect the treasury of re-
ligion. Therefore [the creator] constituted the Kshatriya
the controller of the earth, a second Yama to bear the rod,
for the satisfaction of the people. And it was Brahma’s ordi-

nance that the Vai.shya should sustain these thi’ee castes with
money and corn ; and that the Shudra should serve them.
The son of Ila [Pururavas] then enquires: tell me, Vayu,
whose should the earth, with its wealth, lightfully be, the
Brahman’s or the Kshatriya’s? Vayu replies, “ Whatever
exists in the world belongs to the Brahmans in right of pri-
mogenitiu-e and headship.”;j: Exhortations exhorting Brah-
mans and Kshatriyas to agree (with this recognition) follow.

* Muir’s Texts, i. p. 180. BI. Bh. xii. t. 2429.

I M. Bli. xii. V. 254.0, et seq.

i M. Bh. xii. V. 2749, et seq. Muir’s Texts, pp. 33-4-

§ !M. Bh. xii. V. 2803, 2936, etc.

268

WHAT CASTE IS.

A detailed account is given of an alleged conversation
between Mshvainitra and a Cliandala about a proposal made
bv the sage to eat a dog’s thigli in a season of famine. It
was when this savoury dish was cooked and ready, that
^Ashvamitra by a heavy fall of rain . was prevented from
carrying his fully formed pm'pose into effect. The Chan-
dala is represented as standing out against the use of the
extraordinai-y meal.* Manu alludes to the legeiid'l' as an
illustration of what may be lawfully done for the sustenation
of life in times of difficulty. J A Brahman (Gautama) is
represented as having assimilated himself to the Mlechchas
(alias Dasyus, according to the notice), while dwelling
amono^ them on a begging excursion. He was recalled to
duty, however, by another Brahman visitor.*^

The following passage, wliich I give as translated by
Mr. JMuir, contains a statement of the origm of Caste
different from all which we have yet noticed; while at
the same time, it is more moderate than many of the Brah-
mannical teachings which have passed before oiu’ view.

“ Brigu speaks : Brahma thus formerly created the Prajapatis (Br^-
manas) distinguished by his own energy, and in splendour eqiralling
the sun and fire. The loi'd then formed tmth, righteousness, devo-
tion, eternal Vedas, virtuous practice, and purity for [the attainment
of] heaven. He also formed the Devas, Danavas, Gandharvas, Daityas,
Asiiras, Mahoragas, Yakshas, Rakshasas, Nagas, Pishachas, and men.
Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shiidras, and other tribes [or
castes] of living creatures. The colour \yama, meaning primarily
colour and afterwards caste] of the Brahmans was white ; that of the
Kshatriyas red ; that of the Vaishyas yellow ; and that of the Shiidras
black.

* M. Bh. xii. V. 5330-5420.
i lilanu X. 108.

t Manu X. 108.

§ M. Bh. -\ii. V- 6295, et seip

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAIIABIIARATA.

2(il)

“ Bhilradwiija here rejoins : if the cast (rnj’nct) of the four castes
is distinguished by their colour \_carna\, then Ave perceive in all the
castes a confusion of caste [or colour]. Desire, anger, fear, cupidity,
grief, anxiet}', hunger, fatigue, prevail over all ; [‘ sarvesham na
prabhavati the reading of the Calcutta edition can scarcely be correct;]
by what, then, is caste distinguished ? [They have in common all]
the bodily secretions, Avith phlegm, bile, and blood ; and the bodies
of them all decay : by Avhat then is caste distinguished ? There are
innumerable kinds of things moving and stationary : hmv is the class
[or caste] of all these different classes of creatures determined ?

“ Bhrigu replies : there is no distinction of castes ; this Avhole Avorld
is from [or is formed of] Brahma ; for having been formerly created
by him, it became separated into castes in consequence of Avorks.
Those red-limbed Brahmans [tAvice born] who Avere fond of sensual
pleasure, fiery, irascible, prone to daring, and Avho had forsaken their
duties, fell into the condition of Ksh^triyas. The yelloAv Brahmans
AV’ho derived tlieir livelihood from cows, and agriculture, and did not
practise their duties, fell into the state of Vaishyas. The Brahmans
who Avere black, and had lost their purity, Avho were addicted to
violence and lying, Avho Avere covetous and subsisted by all kinds of
Avork, fell into the position of Shudras. Being thus separated by these
their Avorks, the Brahmans became of other castes. Religious cere-
monies and sacrifice have not been ahvays forbidden to [all] these.
Thus these four castes, Avhose speech [SarasAvati] is from Brahma [or
Brahmanical ?]*, Avere formerly instituted by Brahma ; but by their
cupidity fell into ignorance. Brahmans ai’e dependent on the Vedas
[brahma] ; their deAmtion does not perish, Avhile they constantly main-
tain the Veda, its observances and rules. The Veda [brahma] Avas
created the chief of all things : they Avho do not knoAV it are not Brah-
mans. Of these [of those Avho are not Brahmans ?] there are many
other classes of different sorts in different places, Pishachas, Rakshasas,
Pretas, various classes of Mlechhas, Avho have lost all knoAvledge,
sacred and profane, and folloAv Avhatever observances they please.
Other creatures with the initiation of Brahmans, Avho have ascertained

* See ludische Stuclien, a'oI. ii. 194 note, where Dr. Weber regards this passage
as intimating that at an earlj' period of Tmliaii history the Shfidi-as spoke the
s.ame language ns the other castes.

270

WHAT CASTE IS.

their proper duties, are created by other Rishis through their own
devotion. This creation, proceeding from the primeval god, having
its root in Brahma, and unperishable, is called the mental creation,
devoted to duty.

“ Bharadwiija .now enquires: what constitutes a Brahman, a
Kshatriya, a Vaishya, or a Shudra ? tell me, O most eloquent of
Brahmanical sages.

Brigu replies : he who is pure, consecrated by the natal and other
initiatory ceremonies, who duly studies the Veda, practises the six
kinds of works, and the rites of purification, who eats of offerings, is
attached to his religious teacher, is constant in austerities, and is
devoted to truth, is called a Brahman. lie in whom are seen truth,
liberality, inoffensiveness, innocence, modesty, compassion, and devo-
tion— is declared to be a Brahman. He who pursues the duties derived
from the function of protection (KsJiatti-a), who studies the Veda, and
is addicted to giving and receiving, — is called a K.shatriya. He who
quickly enters among (?) cattle, (this seems to be a play upon words,
to connect the word with the root vish, to enter,) is addicted to

agriculture, and acquisition, who is pure, and studies the Vedas, — is
called a Vaishya. He who is unclean is addicted constantly to all
kinds of. food, performs all kinds of works, has abandoned the Veda,
and is destitute of pure observances, — is called a Shudra. And this
is the mark of a Shudra, and it is not found in a twice-born man : the
Shudra will be a Shudra, but the Brahman not a Brahman.”*

The three Varnas, according- to Parasliara, are required
to observe their respective Tvorks, as often enjoined. A
Shudra, however, may practise merchandise, the keeping of
cattle, masonry, playing, acting, the selling of spirits and
flesh, the selling of iron and leather. What is not agreeable
to usage is not to he done.'f' It is evident from this that
the Shudi-as by this time were not all in a state of slavery.

( 1 3.) In the Anushdsana Parva, there are many notices
of Caste as well as in the Shanti Parva, now refeiTed to.

* Muir’s Texts i. 38-40. M. Bla. xii. v. 6930, et seq.

t Bh. xii. V. 10794, et scq.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAIIABHARATA. 271

The Brahman (theoretically viewed) is said to he free
of anger.* * * §

Tlie question, How did Vishvamitra become a Bralimaii
(without transmigrating into another body) is again put
and answered. References are made to his reported auster-
ities and exploits, and it is said that Richilia, the father of
Shunahsheplia, “ infused into him the Brahmaiihood.”t

A Brahman though only ten years of age is fitted, it is
said, to be a guru of a Kshatriya a hundred years old.
The Brahman is the father ; the Kshatnya the son. It is
in lack of a Brahman that a Kshatriva has sovereio-ntv in

* O V

the earth. J

The Chandala, according to the fictional system, is said
to derive his birth from a Brahman mother and a barber
father. §

The entertainers of Cows and Brahmans and the follow-
ers of truth need fear no evil.|| Tlie females of the bovine
race and the chief of the twice-’horii are often mentioned
together throughout tlie Mahabharata as objects of religi-
ous veneration and attention.

The law of inheritance as affecting the offspring of
Brahmans by wives of different classes is thus in substance
stated: The property of a Brahman being divided into

ten parts, four of these fall to the offspring by a female

* M. Bh. xiii. 26.

f M. Bh. xiii. v. 260. See on the legends here recited, Muir’s
Texts, i. 111-112.

J M. Bh. xiii. v. 394-5. More occurs in the context about the
pre-eminence of the Brahman.

§ M. Bh. xiii. v. 1882.

II M.Bh.xiii. 2035.

272

WHAT CASTE IS.

Brahman ; three, to that by a female Kshatriya ; two, to
that by a female Vaishya; and one to that by a Shudra.*

The origin of the Parashava, Ugra, Suta, Vaidehaka,
Mandgalya, Bandi, Magadha, Nishada, AyogaA'a, Taksha,
Sairandhra, Madhnka, Madgura, Sln^aj)aka, Sangandha,
Madranabha, Pnkkasa, Kshndra, Andhra, Karavara, Pan-
dusaupaka, A'hindaka, and of some other Castes is given
in the fictional form found in Mann and in the table which
we have already inserted, f

The story of Parashnrama and Vishvamitra is again
repeated AAntli variations. Mr. Muir, aaIio gives it at
length, asks, “ Is the legend intended to account for a
real fact? Was Parashiu’ama of a sacerdotal tribe, and
yet by profession a warrior, just as Vishvamitra Avas con-
versely of royal extraction, and yet a priest by profession.”];

The rules to be observed in the giving of gifts and
practising liberality (ckmdharma) are laid down AA’ith par-
ticularity. The fruit of the gift of a coav by a Brahman
distinguished for truth and duty is equal to that of a
thousand (in ordinary circumstances). The fruit of a simi-
lar gift by a Kshatriya of this character is equal to that
enjoyed by a Brahman. That ofa Vaishya is that of five
hunch’ed ; and of a Shudra, of the fourth (of the Brahman’s
merit, or tAvo hundred and fifty). § A long conversation on
the merit of the gift of cows conducted betAveeii Saudasa

* M. Bh. xiii. v. 2ol0, et seq.

f M. Bh. xiii. 25G5, et. seq. See before, pp. 55-59 ; 65-70.

X Muir’s Texts i. 169-171. M. Bh. xiii. 2718, et. seq.

§ M. Bh. xiii. v. 3575-79. See the ceutext for the institiitcs
about Ddnadharma.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAIIAJ3HARATA.

278

and Vasislitlia, follows.* The teaching's of Vasishtha are
in rejilj to the question, “ What, O sinless Lord, is declared
to he the purest thing in the three worlds, hy constantly
observing- which a man may acquire the highest merit
(pur)]/(nnutlama7/i)"? They specify, amongst other things,
the heavens (lokas) into which the givers of cows, of parti-
cular colours and trappings and conditions as to calves
and milk, enter after death. They called forth, according
to the legend, great liberality from Sauddsa, who in conse-
quence attained to the “ heavens,” — a plurality of these
“ heavens” being intimated without that individual specifi-
cation which, with reference to his personal identity, it
miffht have been difficult to indicate. I once ventimed to
propose tbis question to a Brahman casuist : “ Into what

heaven or heavens does the giver of cows of different
characters, each meriting a particular heaven, actually
enter”? He seemed unwilling to give any answer.. I
expected him to have said, “ He will get a choice.”

Another story about Parashurama appears in this neigh-
bourhood. It is thus given by Mr. Muir: —

“ It begins as follows : ‘ Rama, son of Jamadagni, having thrice

seven times cleared the world of Kshatriyas, and conquered the whole
earth, performed the horse-sacrifice, venerated by Bi'Ahmans and
Kshatriyas, which confers all ol>jects of desire, which cleanses all crea-
tures, augments power and lustre; and became thereby sinless and
glorious. He did not, however, feel relieved in his mind, but enquired
of the Rishis skilled in the scriptures, and the gods, what was that
which most perfectly cleansed a man who had committed deeds of
violence; for he felt compunction for what he had done. The Rishis
skilled in the Vedas and Shastras replied, let the Brahmans be the
objects of your liberality, as the authority of the Vedas requires ;
and let the Brahman Rishis be further consulted in regard to the

M. Bh. xiii. v. 3735 — 3801.

274

WIIAT CASTE IS.

means of lustration.’ Pai-asliurama accordingly consulted Vasishtlia,
Agastya, and Kasliyapa. They replied that he should bestow cows,
land, and other property, and especially gold, the purifying power of
which was very great : ‘as those who bestow it, bestow the gods:’ — a
proposition Avhich is thus compendiously proved : ‘ for Agni compre-
hends all the gods; and gold is of the essence of Agni.’ In regard to
the origin of this precious metal, Vasishtha tells a very long story,
how it was born by the goddess Gangi to Agni, by whom she had been
impregnated, and was the son of that god. ‘ Thus Avas gold born the

offspring of Jatavedas (Agni), the chief of gems and of oina-

ments, the most pure of all pure things, the most auspicious of all
auspicious objects ; and one Avith the divine Agni, the lord Prajdpati.
It must be highly consolatory for those Avho are disposed to be liberal
to the Brahmans, to be assured that the gift of gold has such a high
mystical, as Avell as »>,ui-rent exchangeable, value. ‘ Parashurama,’
the story concludes, ‘ after being thus addressed by Yasishtha, gave
gold to the Brahmans, and Avas freed from sin.’ ”*

A dirty story is told about the birth of the great Brah-
man Bhrigu, of whose origin various accounts are given in
the Hindu writings. f

Aijuna is represented as disputing the power and au-
tliority of the Brahmans, and as boasting of Ins own
prowess as a Kshatriya. The god Vayu is then bronght
in repeating various stories, to rebuke his presumption,
and establisli tlie priestly pre-eminence. When the earth,
offended by king Anga who wislied to present it to the
Brahmans as a sacrificial fee, was about to depart in a
pet to the Avorld of Brahma, the sage Kasliyapa (a Brah-
man) entered into her, and she became repleni.shed with
grass and plants, and then did obeisance to Kasliyapa, and
became his daughter. Angiras made a potation of the
waters, and then filled the whole earth with a great flood.

* Muir’s Texts, i. pp. 162-63. M. Bh. xiii. v. 3960, et seq..

j- See Muir’s Texts, i. pp. 152-53.

CASTE ITJ THE EPICS— THE MAIIABHa'rATA. 275

Gautama cursed Puraridara (the god Tndra) for an evil-
affection for his wife Ahalya, and yet escaped injury by
his daring. The Brahmans made the ocean salt by
their curse. Aurva alone destroyed the great Kshatriya
family of the Talajanghas. Agni himself is a BrMiman,
receiving the offerings of the whole world. Utathya
called the god V^aruna a “robber,” for carrying off his
wife ; and in his rage compelled restitution by drinking
up all the sea, of which Varuna (in his modern aspects)
is supposed to be the guardian. Agastya protected the
gods from the enraged Asuras and Danavas, when they
appealed to him for protection ; and expelling the Dana-
vas from heaven made them fly to the south. Vasishtha,
on another occasion, also protected the gods, including
Indra, from the Danavas, all of whom he burnt up.
Atri, too, protected the gods from their enemies. Cha-
jmvana, the powerful, forced Indra to drink the Soma with
the Ashvins, frightening him by a fearful monster, named
Mada, which he created for the occasion. When
Indra and the gods had fallen into the mouth of this
Mada, and thus lost heaven ; and when the demon Kapas
had deprived them of the eartli, they betook themselves,
on the advice of Brahma, to the Brahmans, who hurled
forth their fires and destroyed Kapas. Given the truth
of all these stories, we need not wonder at Arjuna saying,
“ I live altogether and always for the Brahmans : I am

devoted to the Brahmans, and do obeisance to them conti-
nually.”* How suitable to the omnipotent sons of Brah-

* M. Bh. xiii. 7187-7353. See Miiii’s Texts, i. pp. 163-169.
These stories of the Maliabharata are similar to those to which we
have referred at pp. 23-25 of this work.

276

WHAT CASTE IS.

ma would have been the counsel of the poet Gowper : —

Beware of too sublime a sense
Of your own worth and consequence.

The man who dreams himself so great,

And his importance of such weight,

That all around in all that’s done
Must move and act for Him alone,

Will learn in .school of tribulation
The folly of his expectation.

(14.) In the AshvamMha, or Horse-Sacrifice Parva,
we have some valuable geographical information given in
connexion with the wandering of the horse previous to its
being presented to the god Indra; butits indications we have
already noticed on the authority of Professor Lassen.*

In the latter Parvas we have not found any informa-
tion respecting Caste worthy of abstracting, though their
tone is altogether consistent with its spirit. f

Having given, as we have passed along, most of the
legends respecting Parashurama and the destruction of
the Kshatri3’as, we may turn back to a notice of a renewed
race of Kshatriyas, said to have been produced by the
intercourse of Brahmans with Kshatriya women. At
this time, it is added, the Brahmanical faith was well
observed, the Brahmans being well instructed in the
Aedas, their Angas, and the Upani.?hads j the Kshatriyas
being liberal in tlieir Dakshina to Brahmans ; the Vaishyas
cultivating their fields without* cows (i. e., onh' bj' bul-
locks ;) the Shudras not presuming to pronounce the
Tedas; and all the Castes (Vanias) following their dis-

* See before, pp. 245, et seq.

For a reference to Gokarna, Prabliasa, and Dvaravati, etc., see M.
Bh. xiv. V. 2477, et seq.

CASTE IN THE EPICS— THE MAIIABIIARATA. 277

tinctive works.* The general doctrine of orthodox
Hindus is tliat the Kshatriyas as a body have disappear-
ed. The probable reason of this allegation, as we have
already hinted, was the countenance given by the Ksha-
triyas to the Buddhist heresy. The spread of this heresy
gave an importance and expansion among the Brahmans
to the legends about Parashurama which they did not
originally possess ; and that very much to the annoyance
of the professing Kshatriyas of the present day, who are
very unwilling to have their desired position in the
Indian community in any way questioned.

In no work of tlie classical literature of the Hindus
has so much been done, by interpolations and apocryphal
additaments, to uphold Caste as in the Mahabharata.
That large work, with its numerous didactic episodes
and interludes, is as great a strong-hold of Caste as any
of the Indian law-books, to whicli, from its references to
them, it is obvious that large portions of it are posterior.
It ma}'^ be characterized as the great fountain of Indian
popular instruction. Its influence exceeds that of all the
Puranas put together, though they themselves to a con-
siderable extent harmonize with it. The provincial
poetry, — as that of the Marathas, — continually draws
from its almost inexhaustible stores. Most injurious is the
common idea formed of it by the Hindus, that the bulk of
it is veritable liistory as well as exciting and amusing-
poetry. A translation of the whole of it into English is
certainly a desideratum. Notwithstanding the care
bestowed on the edition of the text printed at Calcutta, a
collation of the older manuscripts is also a desideratum. ['

* M. Bh. i. V. 2458, et seq.

t A lithographed edition of the work is in the press in Bombay.

278

AVIIAT CASTE IS.

VI J. — The Buddhist View of Caste.

On entering on tliis subject it is necessary for us to
mark the pre.senl stage of our chronological advancement.
V e view Dr. Max Miiller’s date of the Sutra peiiod,
— from 600-200 before Christ, — as coiTect enouoh for
general practical purposes. It is abundantly evident fi’om
the notices wbich we have given, from even the earliest of
this serie.s of works, that the Caste system had reached its
matiuity when they were prepared. It is also manifest
from the Aranyakas and Upani.shads, that even before this
time, Indian speculation, in which it is admitted on all
hands Buddhism originated, had made considerable pro-
gress. With Caste, then. Buddhism had to deal. Its
peculiar treatment of this institution, as we shall immediate-
ly see, was one of the principal causes of its rapid establish-
ment in India. Buddhism in its most important social
aspect was a reaction against Caste, the tyranny of which
multitudes had begun to feel to be unbearable, though
previous to its origin they had considered themseh es unable
to assail the religious foundations on which it was supposed
to rest. The Brahmans, the inventors and guardians of
Caste, had up to the time ofBuddha been nearly omnipotent
in Indian society.

The word Buddha is not a name, but an appellative.
It means the “ intelligent-one,” or the party possessed of
intelligence (in the sense of omniscience). The proper
name of the individual on whom it is confeiTed is unknouii,
as is the case with those of not a few of the most celebrated
of the Hindu religionists. Other common denominations
of Buddha were Shdkya Muni, the Sage of the Shakya

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

279

tribe; Shakya the Shakya Lord; Slidkya Sinha,

the Shakya Lion (or majestic one); Prabhu Gautama,
tlie distingiiislied one of the Gautama family ; Bhagaval,
the y'orsliipfnl one, emphatically so called ; Siddhdria,
the one Ayho has obtained perfection ; and Tathdgata, the
one Ayho has passed (into total liberation or extinction).*
Buddha (\yho is represented by his followers as haying-
a pre-existent heayenly state obtained by his merits in
former births) belonged originally to the Kshatriya Caste, of
the early influence of which in Indian speculation we hare
already seen some notices-t His father was Shuddhodana,
the king of Kapilayastu or Kapilapura,J “ the estate of
Kapila” or “ city of Kapila,” probably so named from its
proximity to what may haye been the hermitage of the Rishi
Ka])ila, the reputed founder of the Sankhya or Numeral
System of the Indian Schoolmen, to certain of whose doc-
trines some of those of Buddha bear a considerable resem-
blance. His mother, Maya or Mayadevi, daughter of
king Suprabuddha,§ is said to haye died seyen days after

Lalita Vistara, in mult loc.

See before, pp. 239-240, “ Kum^rila [the commentator on the
Mimansa] always speaks of Buddha as a Kshatriya who tried to become
a Brahman.” Muller’s Hist. ofSans. Lit. p. 79.

\ Lalita Vistara, adh. xii. xv. xvi. Life of Shakya by A. Csoma
Kdibsi, in As. Res. vol. xx. pp. 286, et seq.

§ “ There was a consultation again among the gods in what form
Bodhisatta should enter into the womb or body of the woman whom
he had chosen to become his mother. A young elephant with six
adorned trunks, such as h,as been judged proper in Brahmanical w-orks,
was preferred. He therefore leaving Tushita [said to be a heavenj de-
scends, and in the form of an elephant, enters by the right side or cavity
of the body of Mayadevi, the wife of Shuddhodana.” “ The child
came out by her right side.” See A. Csoma Kbrbsi, ut .sup.

280

WHAT CASTE IS.

Ills birth. He was reared under the care of her sister,
Gautami. His early days gave indications of future promise ;
and many extravagant and incongruous legeuds connected
with them are related by his followers. In his youth, it is
said, he was put to school (shdldlipi, hall-of-writing), where
he trreatlv astonished his master, who was named Vi.shvami-
tra, by his knowledge of sixty kinds of writing, terrene and
Celestial.* The party chosen for him as a wife was Gopa,
the daughter of Dandapani, like himself of the Shakya
race, for she is often spoken of as the Shakya Kanya
(daughter, or lady).f Two other spouses were given to liiin
according to the Tibetan accounts. By one of his wives, the
name of whom is variedly given in the Buddhist writings,;}:
he had a son named Rahula. IMarnage did not in his case
interfere with the meditation and reflection to which he was
early addicted. At the age of twenty-nine he renounced
the world; deeply aflected by its prevailing miseiies. He

* At the time of Buddha’s birth, literal ■writing 'ivas probably not
practised by tlie Indians, though it -was in use somewhat before the
third century before Christ. See Author’s India Three Thousand
Years Ago, pp. 34-3G ; and, more particularly. Max Muller’s Hist,
of Anc. S. Lit. pp. 497-524. Among the kinds of writing said to be
known to Buddha, were those of Anja (the Bhagalpur territories),
Banga (Bengal), Magadha, Dravida, and Kindn(ov Kanadi, the Canarese
country ?), the Bakshina, the Ugra, the JDarda, the Kashga, the China,
the the Uttara-Kuni, the Apara-Gaiida, the Easter n-Videha.

Lalita-Vistara, adh. x. (Cal. ed. pp. 143-144). Csoma Kbrbsi (As.
Res. XX. p. 290) mentions the lipi of the Tavanas, (or Greeks) as one of
those known to Buddha; but that is not specified in the Calcutta
edition of the Lalita-Vistara.

I Lai. Yist. adh. xii.

J Burnouf, Lotus de la Bonne Loi, p. 164. Mahavanso, p. 9. As.
Res. XX. p. 200.

BUDDHIST VTETP OF CASTE.

281

became the pupil of a Bralmiaii at Vaisluili, and afterwards
of another famous Brahman at Rajagnlia, the capital of
Magadha. Simple austerities, however, were not to his
taste. With five of liis fellow-disciples he retired into soli-
tude near the village of Uravelaya( '.fterwards Baddhagaya),
where for six years he resided, maturing his own peculiar
sy.stem of faitli. Varanasi, or Benares, was the next
place wliich enjoyed the light of his presence. He was
afterwards invited by king Bimbisara to Rajagriha, at
which place and in its neighbourhood he is said to have
discoursed to his disciples, teaching them the misery of
birth and the desirableness of its termination. It was per-
haps the favour extended to him by Bimbisara which led to
the murder of that king, by his son Ajatashatru. From Ra-
jagrihahe went to Shiavasti,the capit.dof Koshala, where he
lived and lectured in a distinctive building erected for him
and his disciples by an opulent merchant named Anatha-
pindada, and where he succeeded in the conversion to his
faith of Prasenajita, the king of that locality. After twelve
years’ absence he visited his native place, on which occasion
his own tribe professed their adherence to his doctrines.
His own wife and aunt (his foster-mother) are said to
have been the first of his female disciples and devotees.
He afterwards revisited Rajagriha, where he could ulti-
mately claim Ajata.shatru as a disciple. He also revisited
Yai.shali ; and at about the age of seventy-five he died
in a forest near Kushinagara, to which city he had been
bending his footsteps. His death occurred according to
Professor Lassen in the year 54.3, and according to Dr.
Max Muller, in the year 477, before Christ.*'^

^ For a review of the question of the date of Buddha’s death, see
Muller’s Hist, of S. Lit. pp. 260, et seq. (which contains the references

.S6

282

WHAT CASTE IS.

The doctrines of Buddha^ metaphysically viewed, were of
an atheistic character, as, like Kapila, his predecessor, he
denied that there is any proof of the existence of a creative
and superintending providence, and resolved all the
objects, combinations, organizations, and phenomena,
which indicate divine volition, design, creation, adapta-
tion, and guidance, into mere nature, proximity^ deve-
lopment, and growth.* He was an indevout specu-
latist; but as an instructor he was aided by concurrent
circumstances, and produced a greater effect on the
mind and practice of India, and through his disciples
on the adjoining countries, than any other of India's
sons. This effect was not so much the result of his
negative spiritual and metaphysical teaching, — denying
the existence of Deity, and holding out as the summurn
bonum after death, nirvdna. — the extinction of being, or
as some writers are inclined to believe, the extinction of
conscious being, at death, f — but of his moral and

to Lassen) and Groldstiicker’s Manava Kalpa Siitra, Introduction, p.
230-234. Mr. Tournour (Maliavanso, Introduction, p. xlviii.), was
aware of the difficulty of fixing the date of Buddha's death, though he
decides, as Lassen afterwards did, in favour of the Ceylon authorities.
[As this sheet is passing through the press, I observe that a paper on
the date of the death of Buddha (Ueber Buddha’s Todesjahr und tinege
andere Zeitpunkte in der alteren Geschishte Indiens) has just been pub-
lished by my learned friend, Professor Westergaard, K. D. of Copen-
hagen. He makes that event to have occurred between 368-370, B. C.]

* For the principles of the School of Kapila, see the “ Sankhya
Aphorisms of Kapila (text, translation and paraphrase) by Dr. Ballau-
tyne ; and the Sankhya Pravachana Bhashya by Vijnana Bhikshu
(text), with a valuable introduction by Dr. Fitz-Edward Hall.

f Nirvana is a participial noun formed from vd, (to blow, as the
Avind) with the negative affix ni7\ It may mean non-agitation, as ivell

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

283

social teachings, which were superior, in some respects, to
those of his predecessors and contemporaries. What was
liis treatment of Caste ? is the question with which at
present we have to do.

For an answer to this question we must refer to the
traditional record.? of his own teachings and those of his
early disciples, which, though full of exaggerations and in-
ventions, yet afford a small residuum of historical matter to
the critical and philosophical reader ; and to the wondrous
monuments of the faith which he established which are
to be found throughout India, especially in the Western
parts of the Dakhan. Copies of these Buddhist I'ecords,
in the Sanskrit language and Tibetan translations, were
discovered and collected by one of India’s most accom-
plished scholars (both as a linguist and a naturalist) and
most able and public-spirited administrators, B. H. Hodg-

as extinction in which sense (with a good array of authority) it is inter-
preted by Burnouf, Lassen, etc. The word in its technical moaning is
used by the Jaina disputants of the North-West of India principally
for absolute and undisturbable non-conscious-quiescence. The differ-
ence between this idea and that of extinction is but very slight.. One
of the most interesting groups of hewn-figures at the Caves of Ajanta,
of gigantic dimensions, represents the death of Buddha. “ The sage in
the scene is lying in a horizontal position. His earthly servants,
standing round his couch, are overcome with sorrow and grief, while
a band of heavenly choristers above is frantic with joy at the supposed
liberation or extinction of his spirit.” Author’s Eemarks on the Bud-
dhist Excavations of Western India prefixed to Johnson’s Photographs
of the Caves of Karla, p. 5. No symbol of the departed spirit is seen
in this group. Dr. Judson (see his Memoir by Dr. Wayland, ii.
pp. 340-1) found nothing in the Buddhism of Barmah “ to redeem the
system from the charge of absolute atheism.” “ Dr. Judson also
regarded the state of nigban (nirvana) as nothing less than a total
extinction of soul and body.”

284

WHAT CASTE IS.

son, Esq., long Resident at the Court of Nepal, who also
directed attention to their interesting contents in a series
of valuable papers given by him to the Asiatic Societies
ot India and Europe.* Copies of them, too, were, with
princely liberalit}», presented hy Mr. Hodgson to the
Asiatic Societies of Bengal, Great Britain, and France.
Thev bore their first fruits in Paris, throuMi the zeal and
perseverance of the late ingenious and learned Professor
E. Burnouf, who made them the foundation of his “ In-
troduction a I’Histoire du Buddliisme Indien,” which was
published in 1844, and who also translated into French,
one of the most important of them, the Saddhanna
Pandarikci, or “ Lotus de la Bonne Loi,” which left the
press a short time after his lamented death. With the
discover}^ of the Hodgson manuscripts, the researches in
Tibet of Mr. Alexander Csoma Kbibsi, — whose Analysis
of the Dulva (a portion of the great Kah-Gijur) and
Notices of the Life of Shakya, appeared in the Bengal
Asiatic Society’s Transactions in 1835 ; Schmidt’s trans-
lation of portions of the Buddhist canon of Mongolia;
and the translation and publication of the Mahavanso
of Ceylon, by the Hon. George Tumour, which appeared
in 183 7, were nearly concurrent. These interesting works
have been followed by the translation from the Chinese
of the Travels of the Buddhist Pilgrims Fahian and
Hiuen-Thsang in the end of the fourth and beginning of
the fifth, and in the seventh, centuries of the Christian era,
by Renmsat, Klaproth, Landress, and Julien ; by a trans-
lation from the Tibetan of a History of Buddha, by Foucaux ;

* These pnpers, fifteen in nun: her, were collected by Mr. Hodgson,
and republished by him at the Serampore press in 1841.

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

285

by the publication, in the Bibliotbecalndica, of a portion of
tlie Sanskrit Vistarn, tlie LegendaryLife of Buddha,

edited by Babu Rijendralal Mitra; by the important works
of the Rev. Spence Hardy on Eastern Monachism, and his
Manual of Buddhism ; by the able papers of the Rev.
D- J. Gogerly of Ceylon ; by the publication of the Pali
te.xt of the Dhrtmmapodam, by Dr. Fausbull of Copen-
hagen; by various papers on the Buddhist antiquities of
AVestern India, in the Journal of tlie Bombay Branch
of the Royal Asiatic Society ;* and by the learned treatises

* “ The following is a list of the papers treating of them (the Bud-
dhist remains) which appear in our late proceedings, according to the
dates which they bear. On the Ashoka inscriptions at Girnar by
Caprain G. LeG. Jacob and N. L. Westergaard, Esq. Biief account
of the Minor Buddha Caves of Bedsa and Bhaja near Karla, by N. L.
"Westergaard. ^Ir. Prinsep’s Correspondence with Dr. Burn on Indian
Antiquities. Historical Researches on the Origin and Principles of
the Buddha and Jaina Religions, by James Bird, Esq. Correction of
Errors in the Lithograph of the Girnar Inscriptions by Capt. LeGrand
Jacob. Memoir on the Cave Temples and Monasteries and other
Ancient Buddhist, Brahmanical, and Jaina remains of Western India,
by Jolin Wilson, D. D. Memorandum on some Buddhist Excavations
rear Karhad by H. B. E. Frere, Esq. Note on the Rock Inscriptions in
the Island of Salsette by J. Stevenson, D. D. Second Memoir on the
Cave-Temples and Jlonasteries, and other Ancient Remains of Western
India, by John Wilson, D, D. Historical Names and Facts contained
in the Kanheri Inscriptions, by J. Stevenson, D. D. On the Nasik
Cave Inscriptions, by J. Stevenson, D. D. Buddhist Cave Temples in
the Sirkars of Baital-Wadi and Daulatabad, by W. H. Bradley, Esq.
Sahyadri Inscriptions, by J. Stevenson, D. D. Description the Caves of
Kalvi in Malwa, by E. Iinpey, Esq. Descriptive Notices of Antiquities
in Sindh by II. B. E. Frere, Esq. All these papeis are in addition to
the well-known papers of Mr. Erskine, Colonel Svkes, and Captain
Dangerfield, and contain important information with statemenis of
opinion and speculation worthy of respectful attention. Other valuable

WHAT CASTE IS.

•28 (i

of Koppon and St. Hilaire. Ample material has thus
been provided for a correct estimate of Buddhism in its
general character and relationships, though otlier con-
tributions to its elucidation will still be welcomed by the
public.* There can now be but little doubt of the view
which Buddha took of Indian Caste.

papers on the matters to which I now refer, especially by Dr. Stevenson
and the Messrs. West, have been laid before the Societ}'.” — Author’s
Eeview of the Present State of Oriental, Antiquarian, and Geographical
Research connected with the West of India in Journ. B. B. R. A. S.
1856. Since this article appeared, the transcript of the Kanheri In-
scriptions by the Jlessrs. West has been published in the Bombay
Journal for 1862. Dr. Bhau Daji is reviewing them and others in a
series of ingenious and learned papers. It is hoped that by degrees
their contents will be fully ascertained.

* Of the Buddhist writings the following is a correct summary view
by Professor H. H. Wilson.

“ According to the Buddhists themselves, the doctrines of Shakya
Muni were not committed to writing by him, but were orally commu-
nicated to his disciples, and transmitted in like manner by them to suc-
ceeding generations. When they were first written is not clearly made
out from the traditions of the North ; but they agree with those of the
South in describing the occurrence of different public councils or con-
vocations at which the senior Buddhist priest corrected the errors that
had crept into the teaching of heterodox disciples and agreed upon the
chief points of discipline and doctrine that were to be promulgated.
The first of these councils was held, it is said, immediately after Shak\ a
liinni’s death ; the second 110, and the third 218 years afterwards, or
about 246 B. C. The Northern Buddhists confound apparently the
second end third councils, or take no notice of the latter in the time of
A.shoka, but placed the third in Kashmir under the patronage of
Kanishka or Kanerka, one of the Hindu-Sythic Kings, 400 years
after Budha’s Jsirvana or B. C. 153. Both accounts agree that the pro-
pagation of Buddhism, by ilissions dispatched for that purpose, took
place after the third council.

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

287

Buddha found the system of Indian caste in existence
and vigorous operation, when he commenced his studies
and teachings. In the oldest works of his disciples which
treat ol his life and doctrines, the first castes, — of Brahmans,
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, — are frequently men-
tioned, and often in opposition to the Chandalas, Avho are
introduced as representatives of the non-Brahmanical
classes. The Brahmans are generally alluded to as de
facto superior to the otlier classes in status, learning,
religious practice, and austerities. Tliey are recognized
as acquainted with the four Vedas ; as in possession of the
mantras, or holy words ; as the dispensers and conductors
of sacred rites to princes and peoples; as Brahmans hy
birth {Jdti-B rdhmandh ) and Brahmans hy learning
(Vhla- Brdhmanalf ; as resorting to agriculture only in
times or circumstances of distress ; as practising astrology
and soothsaying ; and as receiving gifts of goods, treasure,

“ According to the traditions which are current in the South as well
as the North, the classification of the Buddhist authorities as theTri-
pithaka (the three collections) took place at the first council, the por-
tion termed Sutra the doctrinal precepts, being compiled by A'nanda ;
the Vinaya, or discipline of the priesthood, by Upali ; and the Ahhi-
dharmaov philosophical portions by Kashyapa, all three Buddha’s disci-
ples. Their compilations were revised at the second council, and were
finally established as canonical at last. Their being compiled, however,
does not necessarily imply their being written, and according to the
Northern Buddhists, they were not committed to writing until after the
convocation in Kashmir, or l-oS B. C. ; while the Southern authorities
state, that they were preserved by memory for 450 years, and were
then first reduced to writing in Ceylon.” — Journ. of R. A. S. vol. xvi.
p. 239. In the paper from which this extract is made, Professor Wil-
son expresses his doubt of the system of the Buddhists having had any
specific founder. Shakya Muni, he is inclined to consider only a
mythical personage.

288

WHAT CASTE IS.

and land for their services. The Kshatrijas, with whom,
as we liave already seen, Buddha himself was connected,
are noticed a^ a governing class ; and most of the more
important of them emhraced the system of faith and prac-
ti e of which he was the parent, and used their influence
in hehalf of that system, even to the humiliation of the
Brahmans. Other Castes, such as those of the V enukaras,
Rathakaras, Pukkasas, Baiharas, Ahirs, or Herdsmen, are
viewed in the writing'^, to whicli we refer, as inferior both
in station and privilege to the Brahmans and Kshatriyas.
The Buddhist Sutras, too, recognize the duty, or custom,
of each person to marry in his own caste, and to follow
the profession of his ancestors. They ascribe baseness
and elevation of birth to sin practised or to merit accumu-
lated in former hii'ths, according to the prevailing doctrine
of. the metempsycliosis. Yet, the Lalita Vistara, in giving
an account of the choice of a wife for Buddha by his
father Shuddhodana, represents the father, as giving in-
structions that the wife should he chosen, according to her
qualities, from either a Brahman, a Ksliatriya, a Vaisliya,
or a Sliudra family.* d'his work, however, was probably
composed, only little more than a century before the Chris-
tian era.

“ While society was in this state,” — to quote from M.
E. Burnouf, — “ tliere was horn in one of the families of
the Kshatriyas, that of the Shakyas of Kapilavastu, which
professed to he descended from the Solar race of Kings,
a young prince who at the age of twenty-nine renounced
the world, and became a devotee under the name of
Shdhja Muni, or Sliraman Gautama. His doctrine

Lalita Vistara, adh. xii. (p. 159, Calc, ed.)

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

281)

which according to the [Buddhist] Siitras was more moral
than metaphysical, at least in its principle, rested on an
opinion admitted as a fact, and upon a hope presented as
a certainty. The opinion was that the visible world is in
a state of perpetual change ; that death succeeds life, and
life death ; that man, as well as all that siuTounds him,
revolves in an eternal cii'cle of transmigration ; that he
passes ill succession through all the varieties of life from
the most elementary to the most perfect ; that the place
which he occupies in the vast scale of living beings depends
on the merit of the actions he performs in the world, and
that thus the virtuous man is to he reborn after death
with a divine body and the wicked with a degraded body ;
that the rewards of heaven and the punishments of hell
are only for a limited period, like the things of this vv'oiid ;
that time exhausts the merit of virtuous actions as it
effaces the faults of the wicked ; and that the fated law of
change extends over the world, over tlie gods, and over the
damned (in hell). The hope which Shakya IVIuni gave
to men was the possibility of escaping this law of change,
by entering into what is called nirvana, that is to say,
annihilation. The positive sign of this annihilation was
death ; but a prevenient sign announced in this life the
man predestined to this supreme deliverance ; it was the
possession of unlimited knowledge, which enabled him to
see the world with all its moral and physical laws ; and
to sum up all in a single word, it was the practice of
the six transcendental perfections — almsgiving, morality,
knowledge, energy, patience, and charity. The authority
on which the devotee of the race of Shakya rested his
teaching was entirely personal, and was formed of two

290

WHAT CASTE IS.

elements, the one real, and the other ideal. The fir.st was
the regularity and sanctity of his conduct, of which chastity,
patience, and charity formed the principal features. The
second was the claim he had to be a Buddha, that is Enli^ht-
ened [rather The-endowed-with-intelligence], and conse-
quently possessed of superhuman knowledge and power. By
his power he WTOught mu-acles ; by bis knowledge he called
up before himself the past and the future in a clear and com-
plete form. By it he could tell what any man had done in
a previous state of existence ; and he affirmed that an infinite
number of beings had like himself already attained by the
practice of the same virtues to the dignity of a Buddha before
entering into a state of complete annihilation. In fine, he
presented himself to men as their Saviour, and promised that
his death should not be the annihilation of bis doctrine, but
that that doctrine should continue for a great number of ages
after him, and that when its salutary influence should cease,
a new Buddha, whom he announced by name, should come
into the world, who before having to descend to the earth
had, according to the legends, consecrated himself in
heaven to be a future Buddha.”*

The same distinguished orientalist from whom we have
now quoted thus more particularly notices the view taken
by Buddha of Indian society, and tlie modifications which
he introduced into it in connexion with Caste. “ His
avowed aim was to save men from the miserable condi-
tions of existence which they found in this world, and to
free them from the fated law of transmigration. He ad-

* Buniouf, Introduct. a ITIistoire du Buddhisme Indien, i. pp.
152-53. His references in proof are to the Lalita Vistara, fol. 25 of
his IMS. and to the Life of Shakhya in As, Res. vol. xx. p. 287.

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

291

mitted that the practice of virtue ensured to a good man
a future sojourn in heaven, and the enjoyment of a better
existence. But no one viewed this as a definitive state of
well-being: to become a god was to be born again in order
one day to die ; and the object was to escape for ever the
necessity of being born again and dying. The distinction
of Castes was in the view of Shakya an accident in the ex-
istence of men here below — an accident which he recoo--

nized, but could not prevent. This is why the Castes appear
in all the Sutras and legends which 1 have read as an esta-
blished fact, against which Shakya does not make a single
political objection. This was so much the case, that when
a party attached to the service of a prince wished to embrace
the life of a devotee, Shakya did not receive him till the
prince had given his consent.” [This is illustrated by a
legend from the Avadana Shataka]. “This respect of
Shakya for the royal authority has left its traces even on
modern Buddhism; and it is one of the fundamental rules
for the ordination of a Devotee or Mendicant [/?/riA:67/?r], that
he should reply in the negative to the question,^ Art thou
in the service of the king?* Shakya admitted, then, the

* [One of the questions asked (in Pali) at the candidate for admis-
sion into the order of Devotee (Bhikshu) is rrSfUIT — Thou art

not a soldier-of-the king ? The reply is, ^THT >1^^^ — I am not, O
venerable-ones. See Kammavakhya, edited by Dr. Spiegel, p. 5.
The novice is exhorted, according to this formula of initiation, to eat
the food left by others except on particular occasions ; to wear chiefly
garments dyed with clay ; to dwell usually at the roots of trees ; to
use cow’s urine as a medicament, and only occasionally gin, butter,
oil, honey, and sugar ; to abstain altogether from intercourse with
women ; to abstain from stealing, even that of a leaf ; to abstain from
killing animals, etc.]

292

WHAT CASTE IS.

Ilierarchy of Castes ; he even explained it, as did tlie
Brahmans, by the theory of punishments and rewards ;
and as often as lie instructed a man of low condition, he
did not fail to attribute the baseness of his birth to the
sins he had committed in a former life. To convert a
man of whatever condition, then, was in the view of
iShakya to give him the means of escaping from trans-
migration.” “ Shakya opened, then, to all castes with-
out distinction the way of salvation, from which their
birth had before excluded the greater number ; and he
made them equal among themselves, and in his own
estimation, by conferring upon them investiture with
the rank of Devotees. In this last respect he went much
further than the philosophers Kapila and Patanjali, who
had be2;un a work somewhat resemblino; that which the
Buddhists afterwards accomplished. By attacking as
useless the works prescribed by the Veda, and by sub-
stituting for them the practice of personal asceticism,
Kapila had placed within the reach of all, in principle
at least if not in reality, the title of Ascetic, which pre-
vious to that time had been the distinction and almost
exclusive privilege of the life of a Brahman. Shakya
did more than this : he gave to isolated philosophers the
organization of a religious body. We thus find the ex-
planation of two facts, the facility with which Buddhism
must have been originally propagated, and the opposition
which Brahmanism naturally made to its progress. The
Brahmans had no objections to make to Shakya so long
as he restricted himself to work out as a philosopher the
future deliverance of man, and to assure him of the
liberation which 1 have already characterized as absolute.

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

293

But they could not admit the possibility of that actual
deliverance, that relative liberation which tended to
nothing- short of the destruction in a given time, of
the subordination of Castes as regarded religion. This
is how Shakya attacked tlie foundation of the Indian
system, and it indicates that a time could not fail to
come, when the Brahmans placed at the head of that
system, would feel the necessity of proscribing a
doctrine of which the consequences could not escape
them.”*

It is evident from all this, — which is perfectly con-
sistent with what is found in the oldest Buddhist Sutras
and legends, — that Shakya Muni did not directly oppose
tl)e state of matters religious and social which he found
to exist in Indian society. He thought that he had
found out a better and shorter way to get rid of the
evils of life ; and he brought his own plan to notice in
the most effective manner. He became himself, as we
have seen, an ascetic ; and he strove by strictness and
purity of life, more than by harshness of discipline, to
become tlie best of ascetics, and to elevate himself to a
moral position, superior even to that of the Ttrthyas
or dwellers at holy places, and the most ascetic of the
Brahmans. His tenets and practices he brought con-
spicuously to notice by the public preaching of himself
and his disciples, avoiding that monopoly of know-
ledge and instruction to which the Brahmans had laid
claim. All classes of society, without any peculiar
privilege from Caste, were invited to join the orders
wliich he established, with the full expectation of receiv-
* Burnouf, ut sup. i. pp. 2I0-2I2.

294

WHAT CASTE IS.

ing- th*eir highest advantages. He disparaged and
eschewed, though he did not directly condemn, a here-
ditary priesthood. He pretended, if we may believe
his followers, to work miracles, and to be himself a
miracle of knowledge. He carried his sympathies, too,
much farther beyond the human family than had been
done before his day. He interdicted all animal sacrifice,
and all slaying of animals even for the purpose of food,
ordering; the rules of eating- and drinking so as to
make them accord with this object. Aided by numer-
ous associates and by some of the most powerful of
the Indian princes, he effected a revolution in Indian
society. Multitudes made him their leader; his system
gained a political importance, particularly through
Ashoka the grandson of Chandragupta (the Sandra-
cottus of the Greeks) ; and his faith, through the zeal
of his adherents, and the notice which its wmndrous
structural buildings and excavations (then novelties in
India) attracted, became predominant in India for ages,
and was carried to other lauds, where it still exists
though not Avith its pristine vigour. Even the forest
tribes of India, as may be seen from the ornamental
figures of the cave-temples and ra onasteries of Western
India, are represented as joyfully doing him homage.
Denying the existence of the Divinity, he made him-
self, or suffered himself to be made, a god. His images,
throuo'h the efforts of his followers, soon filled the
temples, the gods of the Hindu pantheon being thence
banished, or there appearing as subordinate to him-
self. His way became more glorious than that of the
Dridimans in the eyes of the multitude, the Sfiramana

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

29')

taking the precedence of tlie Bruhmana.* Though some
l^ralimans became his willing pupils, the Brahmanical
body soon appeared in opposition to him. His followers
in their turn began to oppose the Brahmans, and ulti-
mately placed themselves to them in an attitude of
unmitigated hostility. The strife continued, even during
the ages of Buddhist ascendancy. The Brahman power,
as will be onwards noticed, ultimately proved victorious
within the bounds of India proper.

The final attitude of Buddhism to Caste cannot be
better illustrated than by the Buddhist tract attributed
to Ashva Ghosha. This witty production was discovered
by Mr. Hodgson in NepH in 1829. “ A few days since,”

(he writes in July 1 1th, 1829), “ my learned old Bauddba
1‘riend brought me a little tract in Sanskrit, with such an
evident air of pride and pleasure, that I immediately
asked him what it contained. ‘ Oh, my friend,’ was his
reply, ‘ 1 have been long trying to procure for you this
work, in the assurance that you must highly approve
the wit and wisdom contained in it ; and after many
applications to the owner, 1 have at length obtained the
loan of it for three or four days. But I cannot let you
have it or even a copy of it, such being the conditions on
which I procured you a sight of it.’ These words of my
old friend stimulated my curiosity, and with a few fair
words I engao'ed the old oentleman to lend me and
my pandit his aid in making a translation of it.” This

* The designation of Shramana (a practiser of shrama, toil or
austerity) does not necessarily mean a Buddhist devotee ; but as
opposed to Brahmana, it has this meaning, in Avhich it always occurs in
the Buddhist writings.

296

WHAT CASTE IS.

translation appeared in the third volume of the Trans-
actions of the Royal Asiatic Society, and was afterwards
reprinted in Mr. Hodgson’s “ Illustrations of the Litera-
ture and Religion of the Buddhists.” I have compared
it throughout with a manuscript of the original, present-
ed to me by the late L. Wilkinson, Esq., a most able and
zealous member of the Bombay Civil Service; and
found it to be both sufficiently accurate, and spirited.* * * § I
here give it a place, interpolating a few explanations and
adding a few notes. The Buddhist author, it must be
borne in mind, reasons ex concessu throughout, from what
he supposes to he the Brahmanical writings.

Vojra ShucJn.

“ I, Asliva Gtosha first invoking Manju Ghosha,'|' the Guru of the
world, with all my soul and all my strength, proceed to compose the
book called Vajra ShucTii' [the Adamentine Needle] in according with
the Shastras [or rather, established opinion, Mata']."

Allow then that your Vedas and Smritis, and works involving both
Dharma and Artha% are good and vahd, and that discourses at variance
with them are invalid, still what you say that the Brahman is the
highest of the four Castes, cannot be proved from these books.

Tell me first of all what is Brahmanhood ? Is it life, or parentage,§
or body, or wisdom, or the way [rather practice, achdra] or acts i. e.
that is morality {karma], or the Vedas (learning in the Vedas).

If you say that it is life (jiva ), such an assertion cannot be recon-
ciled with the Vedas ; for it is written in the Vedas that the sun and

* The. Vajra Shiichi was printed by Mr. Wilkinson in 1839, with
an acute but sophistical comment on it by Subaji Bapu.

f [Probably a Buddhist sage. See Burnouf, Lotus de la Bonne Loi, p. 509.]

J [Dharma (duty), artha (aim), kdma (desire), and moksha (liberation), are the
four objects of human existence, according to Iliuduism.]

§ [In the JIS. sent to me by Mr. Wilkinson the word for this (given onwards
as jdfi, or birth, rather than parentage) is omitted.]

BUDDHIST VIEAI/ OF CASTE.

297

the moon, and other deities, were at first quadrupeds ; and some other
deities were first animals and afterwards became gods ; even the
vilest of the vile (shvapdka) have become gods.* From these words
it is clear that Brahmanhood is not life {jiva), a position which is
further proved from these words of the (Mahd) Bharata : seven hunters
and ten deer of the hill Kiilinjala, a goose of the lake Manasa-sara,
a Chakravaka of the Sharadvipa, all these wei-e born as Brahmans
in the KumJcshetra (near Delhi), and became very learned in the
Vedas. It is also said by Manu in his Dharmashastra, “ Whatever
Brahman learned in the four Vedas with- their Angas and Upangas,
shall take charity [fees or gifts] from a Shudra, shall for twelve
births be an ass, and for sixty births a hog, and seventy births a
dog.f From these words it is clear that Brahmanhood is not life ; for
if it were, how could such things be ?

If, again, you say that Brahmanhood depends on parentage or birth
(jati), that is, that to be a Brahman one must be born of Brahman
parents, — this notion is at variance with the known passage of the
Smriti, that Achala Muni was born of an elephant, and Kesha Pingala
of an owl, and Agasl)'a Muni from the Agasti flower, and Ivausika
Muni from the Kusha grass, and Kapila from a monkey, and Gautama
Hishi from a creeper that entwined a Sala tree, and Drona A'charya from
an earthen pot, and Taittiri Rishi from a partridge, and (Parashu) Rama
from dust, and Shringa Rishi from a deer, and Vyasa Muni from a
fisher woman, and Kaushika Muni from a female Shudra, and Vishvamitra
from a Chandalni, and Vasishtha Muni from a strumpet. Not one of
them had a Brahman mother, and yet all were notoriously called Brah-

* [The text of this passage is the following : — '

aiRj HT: TnTrwrfl I : 'TWBTfl 1
1 1 1

3Tr?iT : 'T5TT: 1 I

— ^literally, The Sun was an animated being [or the (great) Soul, according to
the Vedantists] ; the Moon was an animated being ; Indra was an animated
being ; animated beings (were) the gods ; moreover, the gods were animated
beings ; the dog-eaters were at first gods.]

f [The taking of gifts by Brahmans from Shfidras is forbidden in Manu,
but not in the terms here alleged.]

298

WHAT CASTE IS.

mans ; whence I infer, that the title is a distinction of popular origin,
and cannot be traced to parentage from written authorities.*

Should you again say, that whoever is born of a Brahman father or
mother is a Brahman, then the child of a slave [Dasa] even may
become a Brahman ; a consequence to which I have no objection, but
which will not consort with your notions, I fancy.

Do you say that he who is sprung of Brahman parents is a
Brahman ? Still I object that, since you must mean pure and true
Brahmans, in such case the breed of Brahmans must be at an end ;
since the fathers of the parent race of Brahmans are not, any of them,
free from the suspicion of having wives, who notoriously commit
adultery with Shudras. Now, if the real father be a Shudra, the son
cannot be a Brahman, notwithstanding the Brahmanhood of his
mother. From all which I infer that Brahmanhood is not truly
derivable from birth ; and I draw fresh proofs of this from the
Manava Dharma, which affirms that the Brahman who eats flesh
loses instantly his rank ; and also, that by selling wax, or salt, or
milk, he becomes a Shudra in three days ; and further, that even
such a Brahman as can fly like a bird directly ceases to be a Brahman
by meddling with the fleshpots. From all this is it not clear that
Brahmanhood is not the same with birth? since, if that were the case,
it could not be lost by any acts however degrading. Knew you ever of
a flying horse that by alighting on earth was turned into a pig ? — ’Tis
impossible.

Say you that body (sJianra) is the Brahman ? this too is false ; for, if
body be the Brahman, then fire, when the Brahman’s corpse is consumed
by it, will be the murderer of a Brahman; and such also will be every

* [When such absurdities as those mentioned in this paragraph found entrance
into the more modern Indian legendry (in which they still occupy a place), it is
difficult to say. dome things resembling them occur in the Digvarga of the Amara-
kosha, probably of the first century of the Christian era. Agasfya, for example, is
there called Kumbhasambhava, produced from a jar ; A'ugiras to be Chitrashi-
1,-Aand^'o, horn of a peacock; and Aruna to be Garuddgraja, horn of the beak of
Garuda or the eagle. The whole is equivalent to what would he such conceits
as that Lord Bacon was born of the loin of a pig ; that Mr. Partridge, the able
scientific visitor of Garibaldi, was born of the game bird of the same name ; and
that the learned Mr. Sheepshanks was born of the trotter of a ram.]

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

209

one of the Brahman’s relatives who consigned his body to the flames.
Nor less will this other absurdity follow, that every one born of a
Brahman, though his mother were a Kshatriya or a Vaishya, [or a
Shiidra] Avould be a Brahman — being bone of the bone, and flesh of the
flesh of, his father, a monstrosity, you wdll allow, that was never heard
of. Again, are not performing sacrifice, and causing others to perform
it, reading and causing to read, receiving and giving charity, and
other holy acts, sprung from the body of the Brahman ? Is then the
virtue of all these destroyed by the destruction of the body of a
Brahman ? Surely not, according to your own principles ; and, if not,
then Brahmanhood cannot consist in body.

Say yoir that wisdom* constitutes the Brahman ? This too is in-
correct. Why ? Because, if it were true, many Shudras must have be-
come Brahmans from the great wisdom they acquired. I myself know
many Shudras who are masters of the four Vedas, and of philology,
and of the Mimansd, and Sankhya, and Vaisheshika and Jyotishika
philosophies ; yet not one of them is or ever was called a Brahman.
It is clearly proved, then, that Brahmanhood consists not in wisdom or
learning.

Then do you affinn that the A'chara is Brahmanhood ? This too is
false ; for if it were true, many Shudras would become Brahmans ;
since many Nabas and Bhatas, and Kaivartas, and Bhandas, and others,
are everywhere to be seen performing the severest and most laborious
acts of piety. Yet not one of these, who are all so pre-eminent in their
A'chara, is ever called a Brahman, from which it is clear that A'chara
does not constitute the Brahman.

Say you that Karma makes the Brahman ? I answer, no ; for the
argument used above applies here with even greater force, altogether
annihilating the notion that acts constitute the Brahman.

Do you declare that by reading the Vedas a man becomes a Brah-
man ? This is palpably false ; for it is notorious that the Rdksliasa
Havana was deeply versed in all the four Vedas [the Rig- Veda,
Yajurveda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda] ; and that, indeed, all the
Rdkshasas studied the VMas in Ravana’s time : yet you do not say

« Perhaps it should rather be translated learning. Tliis word in the original
is Jn&na.

300

WHAT CASTE IS.

that one of them thereby became a Brahman. It is therefore proved
that no one becomes a Brahman by reading the Vedas.

What then is this creature called a Brahman ? If neither reading
the Vedas, nor sanskdras, [sacraments, J nor parentage, nor race (kula),
nor acts (karma), confers Brahmanhood, what does or can? To my
mind Brahmanhood is merely an immaculate quality, like the snowy
whiteness of the Kundha flower. That which removes sin is Brahman-
hood. It consists of Vrata and Tapa, and Niyama, and Upavdsa,
and Dana, and Dama, and Sliama, and Sanyama. It is written in
the Vedas that the gods hold that man to be a Brahman who is free
from intemperance and egotism ; and from Sanya, and Parigraha,
and Pdga, and Dve'sha. Moreover, it is written in all the Shastras
that the signs of a Brahman are these, truth, penance, the command
of the organs of sense, and mercy ; as those of a Chandala are the
vices opposed to those virtues. Another mark of the Brahman is a
scrupulous abstinence from sexual commerce, whether he be born a
god, or a man, or a Ipeast.* Yet further, Shukra (A'charya) has said,
that the gods take no heed of Caste, but deem him to be the Brahman
who is a good man although he belong to the vilest. From all which
I infer, that birth, and life, and body, and wisdom, and observance of
religious rites (A’chara), and acts (Karma), are all of no avail towards
becoming a Brahman.

Then again, that opinion of your sect, that Pravrajyd is pro-
hibited to the Shiidra ; and that for him service and obedience paid
to Brahnians are instead of Pravrajyd, — because, forsooth, in
speaking of the four castes, the Shiidra is mentioned last, and is
therefore the vilest, — is absurd ; for, if it were correct, Indra would
be made out to be the lowest and meanest of beings, Indra being
mentioned in the (Parni) Sutra after the dog, thus — “ Shva, Pura,
Mugliavan.'’^ In truth, the order in which they are mentioned or
written, cannot affect the relative rank and dignity of the beings spoken
of. What ! is Parvati greater than Mahesha ? or are the teeth superior
in dignity to the lips, because Ave find the latter postponed to the

* [This is according to tlic Buddhist view. The Indian Brahmans have prac-
tised marriage from the earliest ages.]

t [A name ot Indra in the VSdas.]

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

301

former, for the mere sake of euphony in some grammar sentence ? Are
the teeth older than the lips ; or does your creed teach you to postpone
Shiva to his spouse ? No ; nor any more is it true that the Sluidra is
vile, and the Brahman high and mighty, because -vve are used to repeat
the Chatur Varna [four castes] in a particular order. And if this
proposition be untenable, your deduction from it, viz. that the vile
Shiidra must be content to regard his service and obedience to Brah-
mans as his only Pravrajjjd,* falls likewise to the ground.

Know further, that it is written in the Dharma Shastra of Manu,
that the Brahman who has drank the milk of a Shiidrani, or has been
even breathed upon by a Shiidrani, or has been born of such a female,
is not restored to his rank by Prayaschitta.^ In the same work it is
further asserted, that if any Brahman eat and drink from the hands of
a Shiidrani, he becomes in life a Shiidra, and after death a dog.
Manu further says, that a Brahman who associates with female
Shudras or keeps a Shiidra concubine, shall be rejected by gods and
ancestors^ and after death shall go to hell. From all these assertions
of the Mauava Dharma, it is clear that Brahmanhood is nothing in-
defensibly attached to any race or breed, but is merely a quality of
good men. Further, it is written in the Shastra of Manu, that many
Shudras became Brahmans by force of their piety ; for example,
Kathina Muni, who was born of the sacrificial flame produced by the
friction of wood, became a Brahman by dint of Tapa; and Vasishtha
Muni born of the courtezan Urvashf, and Vyiisa Muni, born of
a female of the fisherman’s caste ; and liishiyashringa Muni, born
of a doe ; and Vishvdmitra, born of a Chanddlni ; and Narada Sluni,
born of a female spiritseller ; all these became Brahmans by virtue
of their Tapas. Is it not clear then Brahmanhood depends not on
birth ? It is also notorious that he who has conquered himself is a
Tati ; that he who performs penance is a Tapasya; and that he who
observes the Brahmacharya is a Bi'ahman. It is clear then that
he whose life is pure, and his temper cheerful, is the true Brahman ;
and that lineage (Kula) has nothing to do Avith the matter. There
are these Shlokas in the Manava Dharma, “ Goodness of disposition
and purity are the best of all things ; lineage is not alone deserving

[Shushrusha, service, in MS.]

t {Nishkriti, atonement, in MS.]

302

WHAT CASTE IS.

of respect. If the race be royal and virtue be wanting to it, it is
contemptible and useless.” Kathina IMuni and Vyasa Muni, ami
other sages, though bom of Shudras, are famous among men as
Brahmans, and many persons born in the lowest ranks have attained to
heaven by the practice of uniform good conduct (s/izTa). To say there-
fore that the Brahman is of one particular race is idle and false.

1 our doctrine, that the Brahman was produced from the mouth,
the Kshatriya from the arms, the Yaishya from the thighs, and the
Shudras from the feet, cannot be supported. Brahmans are not of one
particular race. Many persons have lived who belonged to the
Kaivarta [fisherman] Jcxila, and the Bajalca [washerman] kida, and
the Clidnddla kula, and yet, while they existed in this world, per-
formed the Cliitda Karma [head-shaving] and Munj-bandhana [tying-
the-sacred-string], and [applying the] Danta-Kdshthd [tooth-rinsing-
wood] and other acts appropriated to Brahmans, and after their deaths
became, and still are, famous under the Brahman.

All that I have said about BrMimans you must know is equally appli-
cable to Kshatriyas ; and that the doctrine of the four castes is altogether
false. All men are of one caste.

Wonderful ! you affirm that all men proceeded from one, i. e. Brahma;
how then can there be a fourfold insuperable diversity among them ?
If I have four sons by one Avife, the four sons having one father and
mother must be all essentially alike. KnoAV too that distinctions of race
among beings are broadly marked by differences of conformations and
organization : thus, the foot of the elephant is very different from that of
the horse ; that of the tiger unlike that of the deer ;*and so of the rest, and
by that single diagnosis we learn that those animals belong to very differ-
ent races. But I never heard that the foot of a Kshatriya was different
from that of a Brahman, or that of a Shudra. All men are formed alike,
and are clearly of one race. Further, the generative organs, the colour,
the figure, the ordure, the urine, the odour, and utterance of the ox, the
buffalo, the horse, the elephant, the ass, the monkey, the goat, the sheep,
etc. furnish clear diagnostics whereby to separate these various races of
animals ; but in all those respects the Brahman resembles the Kshatriya,
and is therefore of the same race or species rvith him. I have instanced
among quadrupeds the diversities which separate diverse genera.
I noAV proceed to give some more instances from among birds. Thus,

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

303

the goose, the dove, the parrot, the peacock, etc. are known to be
different by their diversities of figure, and colour, and plumage, and
beak ; but the Briihraan, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra are alike with-
out and within. How then can we say they are essentially distinct?
Again, among trees, the Vata and Bakula, and Palasha and Ashoka,
and Tamala, and Nagakeshara, and Shirisha and Champaka, and others,
are clearly conti'adistinguished by their stems, and leaves, and flowers,
and fruits, and barks, and timber, and seeds, and juices and odours ;
but Brahmans, and Kshatriyas, and the rest, are alike in flesh, and
skins, and blood, and bones, and figure, and excrements, and mode of
birth. It is surely then clear that they are of one species or race.
Again, tell me, is a Brahman’s sense of pleasure and pain different from
that of the Kshatriya ? Does not the one sustain life in the same way,
and And death from the same causes as the other ? Do they differ in
intellectual fliculties, in their actions, or the objects of those actions ; in
the manner of their birth, or in their subjection to fear and hope ? not
a whit.* It is therefore clear that they are essentially the same. In the
Udumbara and Panasa trees the fruit is produced from the branches,
the stem, the joints, and the loots. | Is one fruit therefore different from
another, so that we may call that produced faom the top of the stem the
Brahman fruit, and that from the roots the Shudra fruit ? Surely not.
Nor can men be of four distinct races, because they sprang from four
diSerent parts of one body. You say that the Brahman was produced
from the mouth ; whence was the Brahmani produced? From the
mouth likewise ? Grant it, and then you must marry the brother to
the sister ! a pretty business indeed ! if such incest is to have place in
this world of ours, all distinctions of right and wrong must be obliterated.

This consequence, flowing inevitably from your doctrine that the
Brahman proceeded from the mouth, proves the falsity of that doctrine.
The distinctions between Bralimans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras,
are founded merely on the observance of divers rites, and the practice

• [Mr. Hodgson justly says, “ The manner in which our author treats this
part of his subject, is, in my judgment admirable, and altogether worthy of a
European mind. Indeed it bears the closest resemblance to the stj'le of argument
used by Shakespeare. . , .in the Merchant of Venice : Hath not a Jew eyes, etc.”]

•f [The Udambara is the Ficus glomerata; and the Panasa, the Artocarpus
integrifolia.]

304

WHAT CASTE IS.

of different professions ; as is clearly proved by the conversation of
Vaisluunpayana Rishi with Yudhishthira Raja, which was as follows :
One day the son of Panda, named Yudhishthira, Avho was the wise man
of his age, joining his hands reverentially, asked Vaishanipayana, whom
do you call a Brahman; and what are the signs of Brahmanhood?
Vaisham answered, the first sign of aBr.ahman is, that he possesses long
suffering and the rest of the virtues, and never is guilty of violence and
wrong-doing ; that he never eats flesh ; and never hurts a sentient thing.
The second sign is, that he never takes that which belongs to another
without the owner’s consent, even though he find it in the road. The
third sign is, that he masters all worldly affections and desires, and is
absolutely indifferent of earthly considerations. The fourth, whether
he is born a man, or a god, or a beast, he never yields to sexual desires.
The. fifth that he possesses the following five pure qualities, truth, mercy,
command of the senses, universal benevolence, and penance. Whoever
posse.sses these five signs of Brahmanhood I acknowledge to be a Brah-
man ; and, if he possess them not, he is a Shudia. Brahmanhood de-
pends not on race (Kula) or birth, (Jdti) nor on the performance of cer-
tain ceremonies. If a Chandala is virtuous, and possesses the signs above
noted, he is a Brahman. *Oh ! Yudhishthira, formerly in this world of
ours there was but one caste. The division into four castes originated
Avith diversity of rites and avocations. All men Avere born of Avoman
in like manner. All are subject to the same physical necessities, and
have the same organs and senses. But he Avhose conduct is uniformly
good is a Brahman ; and if it be otherwise he is a Shiidra ; aye, IcAver
than a Shudra. The Shudra Avho, on the other hand, possesses these
virtues is a Brahman.

Oh, Yudhishthira ! If a Shudra be superior to the allurements of
the five senses, to give him charity is a virtue that Avill be rewarded in
heaven. Heed not his caste, but only mark his qualities. Whoever
in this life ever does Avell, and is ever ready to benefit others, spending
his days and nights in good acts, such an one is a Brahman ; and Avho-
ever, relinquishing Avorldly Avays, employs himself solely in the

* The word in the original is Tapas, which we are accustomed to translate
“ penance,” and I have followed the usage, though “ ascetism” would he a better
word. The proud Tapas, Avhom the very gods regard with dread, never di-eams of
contrition and repentance.

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

305

acquisition of Moksha, such an one also is a Brahman ; and whoever
refrains from destruction of life, and from worldly affections, and evil
acts, and is free from passion and backbiting, such an one also is a
Brahman ; and whoso possesses kshamd [forgiveness], dayd [mercy],
[subjection of the passions], f?a/ia [liberality], satya [truthful-
ness], shauchana [purity], smriti [knowledge of law], ghrind [ten-
derness], vidyd [learning], and vijndna [discernment], etc., is a
Brahman. Oh, Yudhishthira, if a person perform the Brahmacharya
for one night, the merit of it is greater than that of a thousand
sacrifices (Yajna). And whoso has read all the Vedas, and performed
all the Tirthas, and observed all the commands and prohibitions of the
Shastra, such an one is a Brahman 1 and whoso has never injured a
sentient thing by act, word, or thought, such a person shall instantly
be absorbed (at his death) in Brahma. Such were the words of
Vaishampayana. Oh, my friend, my design in the above discourse is,
that all ignorant Brahmans and others should acquire wisdom by
studying it, and take to the right way. Let them, if they approve it,
heed it ; and if they approve it not, let them neglect its admonitions.”

Of the time of the production of this curious and pun-
gent tract, it is difficult to form an opinion. ]\Ir. Hodgson
says, “ Who Asliva Ghoslia, the author, was, when he
flourished and where, I cannot ascertain. All that is
knotvn of him at Nepal is, that he was a Maha-Pandit, or
great sage, and wrote, besides the little treatise now
translated, two larger Bauddha works of high repute, the
names of which are mentioned in a note.”* Buniouf asks
whether Ashva Ghosha was the celebrated devotee, whose
name is rendered in Chinese by Ma ming (the voice of a
horse), and who according to the Japanese Encyclopoedia,
was the twelfth Buddhist patriarch after the death of
tShakya Muni or some more modern devotee of the same

* Buddha Charitra Kavya, and the Nandi Mukhasughoaha Avadana,
and other works. Hodgson’s 111. of Lit. and Eel. of the Buddhists,
pp. 193-4.

306

WHAT CASTE IS.

name.* I am inclined to believe that the work has been
long known, to a greater or less extent, even on the con-
tinent of India. Mr. Wilkinson obtained his copy of it
from a Brahman of the town of Nasik, at Bhopal in Central
India. The Rev. Dr. Glasgow lately sent me a cata-
logue of a deceased Brahman’s library offered for private
sale, I observed in it an entrance — “ The Vajra Shuchi' ;
and having asked this tract, and obtained it, through
the kindness of my learned friend, I find that it professes
to he the composition of the celebrated Shankara A'charya
(of the eighth century of the Christian era), the copy having-
been made in Samvat 1845 — A. D. 1730. The first part
of this Brahmauic treatise is a brief memoriter summary
of the argument of the Buddhist tract, as will appear
from the following literal translation which I make of it.

Here the Vajra Shuchi [the Adamantine Needle] is ■written.
Hari ! Om ! I begin to publish the Adamantine Needle, the piercer
of the ignorance of the Sh^tra, the stigma of the destitute of know-
ledge, the ornament of the intelligent. That the Bnihman is the
chief of the four castes ( Varna), the Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya,
and Shudra, is declared in the Vedas, and is set forth by the Smritis.
And this is the beginning. What is that which is called a Brahman ?
Is it life (Jiva) ? Is it body {deha) ? Is it birth (jdti) ? Is it colour
{varna) ? Is it learning {pdn,diti/a) ? Is it religion {dharma) ?
Is it liberality {dlumnikya) ? Is it works (karma) ? These are the
eight objections (brought forward).

First, suppose that Life is the thing. Then, it being so, the form
of life being the same in all men, life cannot be the Brahman.

And, again, suppose the Brahman to be Body. Then, fi-om the
disease and mortality apparent in the body of all men down to the
Chandala, it is evident that body cannot be the Brahman. Again,
if body be the Brahman, then from the concremation of the bodies

Introduct. a I’Histoire du Buddhisme Indien, i. pp. 215-lG.

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

307

of fathers and mothers, by sons, the sin of Brahmacide would attach
itself to them. Wherefore body cannot be the Brahman.

And suppose Colour to be the Bnihman, (and that it is the case that) the
Brahman is of white colour, the Kshatriya is of red colour, the Vaishya
is of yellow colour, the Shudra is of black colour :* then from the
appearance of the mixture of colour among all the classes, including
that of the' Brahmans, it is evident that colour is not the Brahman.

Again suppose Works to be the Brahman. According to this, the
Brahman of white colour lives (or would live) a hundred years ; the
Kshatriya, the half (of this number, fifty years) ; the Vaishya, the
half (of this number, twenty-five years) ; and the Shudra, the half
(of this number, twelve and a half years). From there being no
such rule, it is evident that work constitutes not the Brahman.

Again, suppose Birth to be the Brahman. Then, there are many
great Rishis who have been of strange birth : Rishyashringa was born
of a deer ; Kaushika was from a stalk of the Kusha -grass (Poa
Cynosuroides) ; Gautama was (born) from the back of a hair ;
Valmlka (was born) from an anthill; Vyasa (was born from) the
daughter of a fisherman (^Kaivartaka) ; Vasishtha (was born) of a
Vaishya woman ; Vishvamitra (was born) of a Kshatriya female ;
Agasti was born from a water jar ; Mandikya was born from the
flower of the Manduka (Bignonia Indica) ; Matanga was the son
of a Matanga (a low tribe) ; Parashara [the father of Vyasa] was
born from a female Chandala ; Narada was the son of a Dasa ; — so
it is set forth in the Puranas. These parties on account of their distin-
guished knowledge obtained Brahmanhood and pre-eminence, though
without birth, as certainly reported.

Again, if Learning be supposed to constitute Brahmanhood, it is found
that there are many Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shiidras, etc., who have
great knowledge of categories (padartha) and logiiial processes (vakya-pra-
mdna) ; and that consequently learning does not constitute the Brahman.

Again, if Religion be supposed to constitute the Brahman, there are
many Kshatidyas, Vaishyas, and Shiidras, etc., who have in religious
observance performed meritorious works ( ishUipurta) ; and consequently
Religion does not constitute the Brahman.

* This alleged diversity of colour in Ihe primitive Castes is noticed in the Maha
hharata, xiii. v. 6934. See also Muir’s Texts, i. pp. 49-1.

308

WHAT CASTE IS.

Again if Liberality be supposed to constitute the Brahman, there
are many Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras, who have given gifts of
daughters, gifts of cows, gifts of gold, gifts of ahe-bnffaloes ; and there-
fore liberality does not constitute the Brahman,

What then [constitutes the Brahman] ? He who sees the import of
Brahma as clearly as one who holds [the fruit of the] A^malaka in his
hand and who is without lust, anger, hatred, etc., [and has] quiet and
self-restraint, and from whom pleasure, pride, envy, desire, folly, and
other evil affections are removed, is declared to be a Brahman. A
Shiidra by birth becoming a Brahmacharya is declared to be a dvtja
(one-twice-born) ; by practice in the Vedas, he becomes a Vipra (an in-
telligent one) ; and by the knowledge of Brahma, he becomes a, Brahman*

This reasoning is in substance that of the Buddhist
Vajra Sliuchi. Tlie tract proceeds to dispose of the repre-
sentations now quoted on the usual principles of the Ve-
dantists, — not disparaging the caste of the Brahmans, but
holdinjr the knowledo^e of Brahma to be essential to its
perfection. It appears to me that its author thus ingeni-
ously seeks to weaken the Buddhist argument, which must
have been current in the country before he considered it
expedient to interfere with it.

And here it is proper to observe that though the
Vai.shnaA'a Brahmans, — the modern sectarial followers
of Vishnu, — have most absurdly alleged that Buddha
was a descent {avatdra), the Shaiva Brahmans, —
the sectariiil followers of Shiva, — that he was a personal
manifestation (rupadhdrdna) of Vishnu, f effected for the

• Shankara Acharya virichataydn upanishat subodhinyan Vajra Sbuchf, pp. 1-4.

“ Then in the course of the Kali (Yuga), for distressing the
enemies of the Suras (gods), he will be born among the Klkatas, as
Buddha, the son of Anjana.” Bhagavata Purana, i. 3. 24. See
passages of a similar kind referred to in Kennedy on Ancient and
Hindu Mythology, p, 250.

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

309

purpose of destroying the merit of a righteous king,
whose worth they allege came into depressing competition
with that of the gods themselves, they have all along rightly
interpreted the principles of Buddhism while strenuously
opposing them.

In the interesting Nataka, or Play, entitled the
MrichchhalcaVikd, or Toy Cart, attributed to king Sudraka,
and supposed by Professor H. H. Wilson to have been
composed about a century before the Christian era, a
Shramanaka, or Bdddhist mendicant, is represented as
thus sinofinff: —

o O

“ Be virtue, friend.s, your only store,

And restless appetite restrain,

Beat meditation’s drum and sore
Your watch against each sense maintain ;

The thief that still, in ambush lies,

To make devotion’s wealth his prize.

Cast the five senses all away,

That trample o’er the virtuous will.

The pride of self importance slay.

And ignorance remorseless kill j
So shall you safe the body guard.

And Heaven shall be your last reward.

Why shave the head and mow the chin
While bristling follies choke the breast ?

Apply the knife to parts Avithin
And heed not how deformed the rest :

The heart of pride and passion weed.

And then the man is pure indeed.”*

• Wilson’s Hindu Theatre, vol. i. p. 122. The spirit of the original passage
(see Stenzler’s text, p. 112) is here preserved, though considerable freedom has
been used in the translatioD.

310

WHAT CASTE IS.

The party thus chaiinting with Buddhistical propriety,
wlio is represented as originally a Samvdhalca, — a body-
servant, or gambler, is also set forth as saying when
about to leave his original work, “ Lady, on account of
the disgrace of this gambling profession I will become a
Shakya Shramanaka,"* thus intimating the motive, by
which, according to the Buddhist social reform, parties
of the lower castes of the Hindus were often intluenced
in their assumption of Buddhist mendicancy. A similar
motive is that by which many parties of the lower castes
of the Hindus are influenced when they join the religions
orders of the present day.

In the Kashi Khanda of the Skanda Purana, devoted
to the Shaiva form of Hinduism, the following are said
to be the Buddhist teachings of Vishnu, — ^I’esponding to the
call of Shiva, to adopt measures for effecting the injury
of the righteous reign of king Divodasa, whose merit
prevented the return of Shiva to liis own city Kashi : —

“ This order of things (sansdra) is eternally manifest (that is has
no beginning) ; (to it) there is neither creator nor creation. It is
self-existent, and self-extinguished. From Brahma to a (vegetable)
.spike everything is confined in a bodily form. The soul (A'tmd) and
God (Ishvara) are identical ; they are not two : for Brahma, Vishnu,
and Indra, etc. are merely nominal distinctions, as we are denomi-
nated Punyakirti,f etc. As at our natural time our bodies perish,
so (other) bodies, from Brahma to a fly, perish at their natural

* In the Prakrita of the play, the original is
^55TTlTT'T’'T5rf^5riT'^^ being in Sanskrita,

See the carefully edited text of Stenzler,

pp. 39-40 ; 195.

t The name said to be assumed by Vishnu, when he set to the propagation of
heresy.

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

311

time. On a proper view (of matters) there is no superiority of
bodies. Eating, copulating, sleeping, and fear are common to all.
Satisfaction in eating is common to all, without any superiority
or inferiority. Thirst is the consequence to all of refraining from
drinking. ...Suppose there are hundreds of horses: their use to

sit on is the same to all (that is only one at a time is available for
sitting on). The pleasure experienced by sleeping on couches is the
same as if we were sleeping on the Hoor. As we ourselves possessed
of bodies fear death, so all from Brahma to an insect fear death
alike. If we consider aright, we shall see that all wearing bodies
are alike. And having so inquired, it is established, that there
should be no slaughter of any one (living being) (at any time) or at any
place. There is no religion in the world like tenderness to life
{Jfvadaiju) ; wherefore men ought by all means to practise tender-
ness to life. He who preserves a single life, is as if he had preserved
the three worlds, and he who kills one (life) is as if he had destroyed the
three worlds ; wherefoi’e let there be preserving and not killing. That
refraining from killing is the supreme duty {paramodharma), is said
by the learned (suras) of old. Wherefore, whoever has the fear of hell
should avoid- killing. There is no sin in the three worlds like
slaughter. The killer goes to hell ; the non-killer goes to heaven
(svarga). There are other offerings, but their fruits are very small.
The offering ( ddna ) freeing from fear is manifestly the greatest in
the three worlds. There are four gifts enjoined by the great Ri.shis,
on the inspection of the Shastras ; they are seen to be prodrrctive of ad-
vantage in the present life and that which is to come : — giving confi-
dence to the terrified, giving medicine to the suffering, giving learning
to the ignorant, and giving food to the hungry. (Moreover), the power-
in gems, mantras, medicines, is to be reckoned extremely great. Where-
fore men traffic among them by various expedients, and acquire wealth.
Having acquired wealth, continue to worship at the twelve shrines,
for without wealth there is no other way of worship. The twelve
good (shrines) are the five organs of sensation, the five faculties of sen-
sation, the intellectual faculty (mana), and intelligence {huddhi).
Heaven and hell are in these twelve and nowhere else. Pleasure is
said to be heaven, and pain to be hell. If the body die while enjoying
pleasure, this is deliverance (moksha). This is the excellent deliver-

312

WHAT CASTE IS.

ance ; there is no other deliverance whatsoever. The total destruction
of desire and pain is in the highest sense the excellent deliverance
(vijndno-paramomoksha) this is to be understood by the perceivers of
distinctions. This is the Shruti spoken by the learned in the Vedas : —
There is to be no killing of any living beings ; (the sacrificial "Rich
beginning with) Agnishoma begets bewilderment to pure persons, for
to intelligent ones there is no authority to its making the destruction of
animals. That the cutting of trees, the slaughtering of animals, the
making the ground red with the burning of oil-giving plants and
clarified butter, lead to the attainment of heaven is surprising.*

The doctrines propagated by the Buddhists, — those of
the eternal existence of the universe, of the negation of a
Creator and a creation, of the identity of soul in all
existing forms, of the natural course of growth and decay
and pleasure and pain, of the universality of the fear of
birth and death among sentient beings, of the great virtue
of the preservation of life even in its lowest forms, of the
evil of animal saciifice and the destruction of vegetable
growth, — are all here plainly set forth. It is only the
doctrine of spirit involved in the passage quoted, how-
ever, Avhich can be applied to the mitigation of the
pride of caste. Very precise on this subject are the teach-
ings in the context put mto the mouth of Lakshmi, the
spouse of Vi.shnu, who under the name of Vijndna Kau-
mudi, is thus made to hold forth, after alluding to the
propriety of enjoying bodily pleasures, which is no peculiar
tenet of the Buddhists : — “ The thirteen beautiful daughters
of Daksha were married to Kashyapa, the son of Marichi
(the brother of Daksha). People of small understanding
of the present time consider that such a kind of marriage

• Kashi Kbanda, of the Skanda Purana ii. 58. 80-108 (fol. 34-37 of MS. of l)r.
Bhau

BUDDHIST VIEW OF CASTE.

313

h fit, uiul yet not fit. Tlie four castes are produced from
tlie mouth, arm, thigh, and foot : this was the false
imagination of olden times. How can four sons produced
from the same body be of separate castes ? (High) caste
and low caste (varna avarna) are not to be thought of.
Distinctions among men are not to be taken cognizance of
by any one at any time or at any place.”*

Only one explanation regarding the Buddhist view of
Caste remains to be made. Though it is evident, both
from tlie testimony of the Buddhists tliemselves and of
their enemies the Brahmans, that they opposed Caste as
far as they were able according to the exigencies of the
times in which they lived, they actually, as a matter of
policy, often winked at its existence in Indian society.
While it was not canied by them into foreign countries, it
was tolerated, though disparaged, by them wherever thev
found they had been preceded by Aryan rule. They
invented, too, in connexion with it their own legendrv.
All this is abundantly evident from what we find to be the
state of matters in regard to the island of Ceylon. Mr.
Tolfrey, in the Appendix to Lord Valentia’s Travels, says,
“ The epoch in Avhich Ave now are is called (by the
Buddhists) the Mahabhadra Kalpa,” previous to Avhicli a
thousand millions of millions of worlds (sakavals) have
been destroyed. Living creatures were regenerated, how-
ever, in the higher regions, and became Brahmas, AAithout

* Kaslu Khanda, ii. 58, 109-123 (MS. fol. 36). The legend of
Divadasa and Buddha, as found in this work, is, in substance, given
by Vans Kennedy in his Eesearches in Ancient and Hindu Mythology,
pp. ■423-'131. See also Author’s First Exposure of Hinduism, pp.
137-140.

WHAT CASTE IS.

any distinction of caste* Some of these Bralnuas returned
to the world, “ which tliey formerly inhabited, on their
being reproduced, hut from avarice degenerated to such a
degree that they began to steal. Upon this, quarrels
arose among them, and there being no chief to decide
these disputes, their wise men reflected that the world
would not be in a proper state w ithout some kind of go-
vernment. Upon this they selected from among them
a person renowned for wisdom, whom they appointed to he
their king, saying to him, ‘ Thou art our king we Avill
give to thee one-tenth part of the substance we may acquire ;
he thou a judge, and a ruler over us.’ This king was
called Maha Sammata, a compound Avord, AAhich signifies
a great assembly [rather one elected by many], to indicate
that he had been chosen by the consent of many people.”*
The statements made by Mr. Spence Hardy agree Avith this
condensed vieAv of the Buddliist theory of tlie origin of
the principal Castes. The king, he tells us, W'as called
a Khatiyo or Ksliatriya ; the Brahmas, Avho concuiTed in
the suppression of impious proceedings, were called Brah-
manas; those who acquired wealth, Vessd, or Vaishyas ;
and those wdio were addicted to hunting, Sudda,or Shudras.f
Several lists of Castes or professions are given by Mr.
Tolfrey. Their denominations are principally derived
from the Sanskrit, and are similar to those contained in the
Indian lists Avhich aa e have already inserted. They are
said to haA'e been constituted in order to serve the four
superior Castes.

* Lord Valentia’s Travels, iii. p. 488-9.

Manual of Buddhism, p. 66.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS. 315

The destruction of Buddhism by Brahmanism under
caste influence I shall afterwards have occasion to notice
I conclude this chapter by remarking- that the Jainas, who
are only Buddhist Seceders, take exactly the same view of
Caste as their speculative progenitors. Their Yatis or
Jatis^aud other religionists in the West of India, continu-
ally assail Caste by such arguments as we find in the
Vajra Shuchi of Ashva Gho.?ha.

VITI. — A Peep AT Indian Society by the Greeks.

India is emphatically the land of mystery. It has been
a land of mystery from the earliest ages to the present
hour. It has been a land of mystery to distant strangers,
to friendly and hostile visitors, and even to its own
inhabitants. Scarcely any other country of the world
is to be compared to it in this respect. Egypt, with its
hieroglyphic and hieratic characters and its esoteric
doctrines, had its records and gigantic works palpable to
all, which declared the grand outlines of its history, even
back to the remotest ages. Assyria, Babylon, and
Persia, though long obscure to their neighbours, did not
conceal their history from their own. people, but even
stamped much of it on bricks and cylinders, and graved
much of it on permanent tablets and on rocks, to be
read by all men. The closed land of China, though
jealous of foreign intrusion, has always patronized an
open literature for the benefit of its own sons, as well as
preserved and published the results of the thought and
research of its numerous moralists, economists, and re-
corders. Lidia alone has striven to keep itself in obscurity

316

WHAT CASTE IS.

and darkness. It had its poets in the early ages of the
world; but the}' composed, and sang, and recited, princi-
pally for themselves and the gods of their invention and
recognition. It had its priests, more numerous perhaps
than those of any other country, but they kept their
knowledge within their own circle, making of it an entire
monopoly. It had its thinkers and wise men; but their
lips did not “ disperse knowledge,” but enjoined the
preservation of it as a body of secrets to be communicated
only to particular classes of men, and amongst these oidy
to the disciplined and initiated. It had its princes who
patronized its bards and eulogists ; but these princes
encouraged these bards and eulogists to deal with flat-
teries and fables and not with facts and principles. It
had its peculiar itiJu'isa, but this, speaking generally, was
simply a licensed fiction, a dogmatic assertion that mat-
ters (in their incongruities and puerilities beyond the
sphere of rational belief) were said to he so and so, without
reference to their real orig-in and circumstantials. It con-
tented itself with bare genealogical tables, which make no
distinction between tlie divine, the heroic, and the human,
and into which were thrust apocryphal additions whenever
a new power or dynasty, however obscure, was anxious to
invent and claim the ])restige of antiquity. When these
tables necessarily referred to later times, they were actu-
ally set forth, as in the Bhagavata, Yidinu, and other
Puranas, not as chronicles of the past, but as prophecies of
the future. Its own progress and development, it neither,
as a consequence, observed nor recorded. The only
glimpses into its past which itself furnished were obtained
by occasional rents in the veil of its mystery by the

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS. 317

violent hand of sectarianism, as in the case of Buddhism
and other attempts to modify or change its general creed.
It even kept aloof, after its early ages, from commerce
and communion with neighbouring nations, which its
own sons were forbidden to visit on pain of religious
deprivation.

It is the fact that India has thus not spoken for herself
that gives such a great interest to the notices taken of it
in connexion with the nations and tribes which by
visiting its shores sought to carry its productions to
distant lands; and to the observations made on the
borders of its territories or within its own boundaries by
those who have sought to acquire its sovereignty, or to
maintain with it a good understanding in connexion with
their neighbouring colonies. This interest is now en-
hanced tenfold, when the vast and non-reviewed literature
of India is in all its departments, in this critical age,
passing into the hands of those who are competent to
observe its indications, to interpret its spirit, and to cast
the light which it yields on the patli of its past advance-
ment, and on the present state of its society, and its
physical condition.

From all the people of antiquity brought into contact
with India, we should expect the most from the Greeks.
They had a cultivated intelligence, ardent curiosity, and,
except as modified by an inordinate tribual pride, feelings
of catholicity connected with all that could be character-
ized as an approximation to civilization. It was among
them that the historiccil faculty properly so-called was
first developed in extended comprehensiveness and
laborious research. History (laTopla), — learning or

318

WHAT CASTE IS.

knowing by inquiry, and the knowledge or information
so obtained, — was their own word ; and the improvement
of the historical faculty was their own glory. They
belonged to the same great race from which the dominant
Indians, the ATyans, had sprung. Their forefathers,
with those of these ATyas, had long been members of
the same family and community, and had had the same
social connexions, the same speech, the same gods, and
the same religion. The questions at once occur, when
we realize their intercommunion in subsequent times, —
Did the Greeks recognize their remote but close rela-
tionship with the A'ryas ? did they perceive in India
the many elements of their common speech ? did they
discover the identity or analogous position of the Grecian
and Indian gods 1 did they see how the tribes migrating
to the w'est and those moving to the south or south-east
had, with marked peculiar diversities of occupation and
development, certain things in common ? did they note
the peculiarities of India, and contrast them with those
of their own country 1 These and other similar ques-
tions can be answered only by a careful collation of, and
attention to, the fragments of their accounts of India
which remain, and the comparison of them with what we
know of India itself and find in its literary remains. By
a similar process we answer the inquiries. Do the Greek
accounts illustrate the Indian literature, and Does the
Indian literature illustrate the Greek accounts ? Both
series of questions will be answered, in part at least, as
we proceed with this section of our volume.

The first Greek author who mentions India by name,
I need scarcely mention, is Herodotus, the father of

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GEEEKS. 319

profane history.* He was born at Halicarnassus in
Caria about the year B. C. 484; and he probably lived
to an advanced age. He had intimate connexions at
various times with Greece and the Greek colonies, and
he was a great traveller in Europe, the North of Africa,
and the West of Asia. He had, for his day, a compre-
hensive view of the objects of history. “ Herodotus of
Halicarnassus,” he says, publishes his researches in order
to prevent the achievements of men from fading in the
oblivion of time, and lest the great and admirable exploits
both of Greeks and Barbarians should fail of their due
renown. He also proposes to explain the occasions of
the wars which have been carried on between them.”f
The w’ars before him were specially those of the Greeks
and Persians. It is in connexion with these wars that
he notices the circumstances of the various peoples which
were affected by them. The course of his history, which
he dedicates to the Muses, properly commences with the
time (B. C. 546) when Cyrus, the founder of the Persian
empire, conquered the Lydian kingdom of Croesus, and
extends to the capture of Sestos (B. C. 478), when the
Greeks triumphed over the Persians. It is in connexion
with his enumeration and description of the satrapies of
Darius that he notices India, both as included in these
satrapies and exterior to them. He had not personally
visited India, his travels to the East having terminated
in Mesopotamia or the Persian provinces contiguous to
that country. There can be but little doubt that he had

* Perhaps India was included in the Ethiopia of Homer (Od.
i. 23-24').

f Herodotus, Clio., 1.

320

WHAT CASTE IS.

intercourse with parties who had seen India or made it
the subject of inquiry with those who had visited its border
provinces. The information which he gives respecting
it, though brief, and not to be received wdthout criticism,
is nevertheless of a valuable character.

Of geographical discoveries and acquisition of terri-
tory in India by Darius, Herodotus thus wu'ites : — “ The
greater part of [the unknown] Asia was explored under
the direction of Darius. This king wishing to know on
what part of the coast the Indus meets tlie sea — a river
which after the Nile is the only one [then known] that
produces crocodiles, sent ships with persons on whose
fidelity and truth he could rely, and among these was
kScylax of Car3^andea. These setting out from Caspa-
tyrus, a city of Pactyica, descended the river in its course
towards the East (?) till they reached the sea.” “After
this voyage had been accomplished, Darius subdued the
Indians, and frequented that sea,” (the Indian Ocean).*
The origin of this voyage must have been on the Kabul
affluent of the Indus — theKophenor Kuhhd. Pactyica,
(the country in which it commenced) is recognizable in
the name of a people, with whom w'e are all familiar,
found in that locality to the present day, I mean tlie
Pakhtus or Pathans. Speaking of the twentieth satrapy
of Darius established through this conquest, Herodotus
further says : — “ The Indians a people much more
numerous than any that is known contributed a sum
proportionately larger than that of any other division,
for they paid three hundred and sixty talents of gold

* Herod. i\\ 44. Taylor, p. 285.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY HY THE GREEKS. 321

dust.”* We have not to suppose, from this notice, that the
empire of Darius extended over all the country now com-
prehended under the name of India. It embraced, there
is reason to believe, only the country contiguous to the
hanks of the Indus and the territory lying on the Persian
side of the Hindu Caucasus. This is evident from what is
afterwards added by Herodotus : — “ The eastern part of
India is a desert of sand, and of all the nations known to
us, or of which we possess any certain information, the
Indians are the farthest toward the East, being on that
side the first people of Asia : for the sands render the
country beyond them towards the east uninhabitable. ”f
The great desert here referred to is supposed by Sir
Gardiner Wilkinson to be that lying to the north of the
Himalaya between that range and the Tchien Chau
Range.;}: Major Rennell supposes that it may apply to

the country between the lower part of the Indus and
Rajputana.§ It is evident that Herodotus had not been
exactly informed of the peninsula of India, stretching into
the Indian ocean, though he speaks in the progress of his
narrative of a people resembling Ethiopians in the tint
of their skin, whose country was a long way from Persia
(that is the Persian dominions) towards the south.

India is the only satrapy which Herodotus represents
as paying its tribute in gold. The sum which he speci-
fies as yielded by it is very large, being four and a half
times as much in value as that yielded by the opulent
satrapy of Babylonia and Assyria. The region from
which the gold was procured is indicated by him, it is

* Herod, iii. 94. f Ib. iii. 98.

I See Rawlinsou’s Herod. § Rennell’s Geo. oi Herod, p. 309.

322

WHAT CASTE IS.

believed, witli accuracy. “ There are other Indians not
far distant from the city Caspatyrus, and the region
Pactyica.” “The mode of life followed by these is
similar to that of the Bactrians. They are the most
warlike of all the Indians ; and it is these who furnish
the gold.”* The northern portions of this district em-
bracing the lofty ranges of the Hindu Kush, the Belur-
Tagli and Mus-Tagh, Altai, and other places near the
sources of the Oxus and Kabul Indus, are said to
“ abound with the precious metal-” This portion of
country is, I think,- referred to in the book of Genesis, — in
connexion with the seat of the garden of Eden and the
rivers of paradise. “ A river (or watershed, panalot, or
water-roll in the Indian languages, as I venture to
interpret it) went out of Eden, to water the garden
(probably an extended district) ; and from thence it was
))arted, and became into four heads (for actual drainage).
The name of the first is Pishon (or the Shon or Indus in
this quarter. Pi, the first syllable of tlie word, as I have
elsewhere conjectured,! being the Egyptian definite article,
and SJton being the Egyptian name of the Simihu, or
Indus); that is it which compasseth the whole land of
Havilah (the Campilla of the Indians, as tliought by Pro-
fessor Lassen), where there is gold ; and the gold of that
land is good : tliere is bdolach and the onyx stone. And
the name of the second river is Gihon (admitted by all
o-eoo-raphers to be the Oxus) : the same is it that com-
])assed the whole of Cush (translated Ethiopia).”! This
region, I believe with others, furnished the gold of the

* Herod, iii. 98. t India Tliree Thousand Years Ago.

! Gen. ii. 10-12.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS. 323

Solomonic commerce, referred to in the books of Kings
and Chronicles, which was exported from ports on the
Indus, in the province denominated by Ptolemy Abiria,
and by the Periplus, Sabiria mA Iberia, — the land of the
A bhiras, the Indian Ophir.*

The account given by Herodotus of the method of the
accpiisition of the gold referred to has afforded much
amusement since his day, though it has been substantially
repeated by some of his successors.

“ Here in this desert (that is the sandy desert already mentioned)
there live amid the sand great ants, in size somewhat less than dogs,
but bigger than foxes. The Persian king has a number of them which
have been caught by the hunters in the land whereof we are speaking.
Tliese ants make their dwellings under ground, and like the Greek
ants which they very much resemble in shape, throw up sand heaps
as they burrow. Now the sand which they throw up is full of gold.
The Indians, when they go into the desert to collect this sand, take
three camels and harness them together, a female in the middle and a
male on either side in a leading rein. The rider sits on the female ;
and they are particular to choose for the purpose one that has but just
dropped her young ; for the female camels can run as fast as horses,
while they bear burdens very much better. When the Indians there-
fore have thus equipped themselves they set off in quest of the gold,
calculating the time so that they may be engaged in seizing it during
the most sultry part of the day, when the ants hide themselves to

escape the heat When the Indians reach the place where the

gold is, they fill their bags with the sand, and ride away at their best
speed ; the ants, however, scenting them, as the Persians say, rush
forth in pursuit. Now thc.se animals are so swift, they declare, that
there is nothing in the world like them ; if it were not therefore, that
the Indians get a start while the ants are mustering, not a single gold-

* See Lassen’s Indische Alterthumskunde, ii. p. 539. Josephus
(Antiq. 1. 3. 3.) and many of the Christian Fathers made the Pishoa
tlie Ganges.

324

WHAT CASTE IS.

gatherer could escape. During the flight the male camels, which are
not so fleet as the females, grow tired, and begin to drag, first one
and then the other ; but the females recollect the young which they
have left behind, and never give way or flag. Such, according to the
Persians, is the manner in which the Indians get the greater part of
their gold ; some is dug out of the earth, but of this the supply is
scanty.”*

In this narrative there are donbtless proofs both of
imposition practised upon Herodotus by his informers,
and of the simplicity and credulity of the historian.
Even in its absurdities, however, heightened though
they have been by the fears of the gold-finders lest their
occupation should be interfered with by interlopers, there
is a substratum of truth. The late Professor Horace
Hayman Wilson is of opinion that the story may have
arisen from the fact that the gold found in the plains of
little Thibet is commonly called Pippilika or “ant” gold,
I'rom the belief that the colonies of ants, by their
wonted operations, are instrumental in bringing the gold
to view. A better conjecture, in my opinion, has been
made than this. It is that the animal which is said to bur-
row in the sands is the Pengolin, or ant-eater (the Manis
crassicaudata), called hy thenatives of the Maratha Coun-
try the Kauvali manjar (or tiled cat). The habits of this
animal in burrowing in the sands are well known ; and
it is abundant in many places of India. It is one of the
most remarkable of the Edentata mammals ; and as its
familiars are not recognized by the natives of India, they
give very fabulous accounts of its powers and capacities,
especially of its alleged ability to kill a man by the
sweep of its tail, which bears a greater proportion to the

Taylor’s Herodotus, p. 494.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS. 325

size of its trunk than is found in any other quadruped.
In certain of its aspects, as looked at by the rude childreji
of nature, it has some resemblance to an ant. It is so
curious altogether that it is not unlikely that specimens
of it may have been sent to the king of Persia. It is a
mistake of our countrymen in India, to say that food cannot
be provided for it in a state of captivity. I nourished
a specimen of it for a couple of months, by giving it
milk and eggs ; and it died only in consequence of a fall
which it had of about twenty feet.

Of the tribes of India, Herodotus remarks that they
are “ numerous,” and that “ they do not all speak the
same language.” The A'ryan conquerors of India, who
spoke the Vedic language (called Sanskrita when after-
wards it had the benefit of grammatical culture), were
not, as we have seen in former parts of this work, the
first immigrants into India. They found that they had
been preceded not only by tribes remotely cognate with
tliemselves, but by many Scythian, Turanian, and Hamitic
tribes, whose languages they but little understood. About
the time of Herodotus, the Sanskrit was about to cease
to be a spoken language. Such of the tribes of India as
laid aside their own Turanian dialects, had then formed
a great many provincial dialects, in their attempts to make
themselves intelligible to the dominant people. This
diversity of language was not unknown even in what
must have been the Persian India. There are several
Indus dialects (as there are great diversities of tribes) on
the banks of that river even in the present day. It is
an extremely curious fact that the language of the
Braliuis, a people there to be found, is cognate not so

WHAT CASTE IS.

3-2 G

umcli with the languages of Northern as witli tliose of
Southern India.

Of a certain tribe or class on the banks of the Indus,
Herodotus says : — “ They who dwell in the marshes along
the river, live on raw fish, which thev take in boats made
of reeds, each formed out of a single joint. These
Indians wear a dress of sedge, which they cut in the
river and bruise ; afterwards they weave it into mats, and
wear it as we wear a breast-plate.” Rude Ichthyophagi
of tliis character have been associated with many countries,
but partially known. Some have supposed that the reed
out of which their boats were constructed were bambus ;
but the fabrication of boats from a single joint of a bambu
was impossible.

“ Eastward of these Indians,” our author goes on to
sav, “ are another tribe called Padoeans, who are wander-
ers, and live on raw flesh. This tribe is said to have
the followiiio; customs : — If one of their number be ill,
man or woman, they take the sick person, and if he be a
man, the men of his acquaintance proceed to put him
to death, because they say his flesh would be spoilt for
them if he pined and wasted away with sickness. The
man protests he is not ill in the least, but his friends uill
not accept his denial — in spite of all he can say they kill
him, and feast themselves on his body. So also if a
woman be sick, the women who are her friends take her
and do with her exactly the same as the men. If one of
them reaches to old age, about which there is seldom
anv question, as commonly before that time they have
had some disease or other, and so have been put to death —
but if a man notwithstanding comes to be old, then they

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GKEEKS. 327

offer him in sacrifice to their gods and afterwards eat his
flesh.”

On tlie cannihalism here referred to, tlie following note
is given in RaAvlinson’s lately published translation of
Herodotus — a work of great merit, and generally edited
with critical carefulness and accuracy. “ The same
Custom (of cannibalism) is said to have prevailed among
the Massagetae and the Issidonians ; and a similar one
is mentioned by Strabo as existing among the Caspiaus
and the Derbices. Marco Polo found the practice in
Sumatra in his own day. “ The people of Dragoian,”
he says, “observe this horrible custom in cases wliere any
member of their family is afflicted with a disease. The
relations of the sick person send for the magicians, whom
they require, on examination of the symptoms, to declare
whether he will recover or not. If the decision be that
he cannot, the relations then call in certain men whose
peculiar duty it is, and who perform their business witli
dexterity, to close the mouth until he is suffocated. This
l)eing done they cut the body in pieces in order to prepare
it as victuals, and when it has been so dressed the relations
assemble, and in a convivial manner eat the whole of it,
not leaving so much as the marrow in the bones.’ Accord-
ing to some modern writers (Elphinstoiie’s Cabul, vol. i.
p. 45, 2nd ed.) cannibalism continues in tlie countries
bordering on the Indus to the present day.”*

To this I would add, that the word Padoean may perhaps
have been derived from the Iiuhan Pahudi, or “ moun-
taineers,” against whom the charge of cannibalism is not
yet extinct, even in parts more to the east and south than

* Eawlinson’s Herodotus.

WHAT CASTE IS.

tlie Indus. In an account of the Bandarwars by Lient.
Prendergast, we find the following statement : —

“ In May, 1820, I visited tlie hills of Amarkantak, and the source
of the Narbada river, accompanied by Capt. W. Lo\v of the Madras
Army, and having heard that a particular tribe of Gonds who lived
in the hills were Cannibals, I was anxious to ascertain the truth of the
assertion, and made the most particular enquiries (assisted by my
munshi, Mohan Sinha, an intelligent and well informed Kayath) as to
their general habits and mode of living. We learned, after much
trouble, that there was a tribe of Gonds Avho resided in the hills of
Amarkantak, and to the S. E. in the Gondwiida country, who held
very little intercourse with the villagers, and never went among them,
except to barter or purchase provisions. This race live in detached
parties, and have seldom more than eight or ten huts in one place.
They are Cannibals in the real sense of the word, but never eat the flesh
of any person not belonging to their own family or tribe ; nor do they
do this except on particular occasions. It is the custom of this singular
people to cut the throat of any person of their family Avho is attacked
by severe illness, and who they think has no chance of recovering,
Avhen they collect tlie whole of their relations and particular friends,
and feast upon the body. In like manner, when a person arrives at a
great age, and becomes feeble and weak, the Halal-khor operates upon
him, Avhen the different members of the family assemble for the same
purpose as above stated. In other respects, this is a simple race of
people, nor do they consider cutting the throats of their sick relations
or aged parents any sin ; but on the contrary an act acceptable to
Kali, a mercy to their relations, and a blessing to their whole race.”*

This matter deserves to he inquired into. It was the
eliarge of infanticide against the Indians hrouglit hy
Colonel Wilford on the alleged authority of the Greeks
and Romans, which led Jonathan Duncan to discover the
awful custom of infanticide among the Rajputs. Our actual
acquaintance with the inhahitauts of the forests of India is
a great deal more limited than it ought to he at the present

* Alexander’s E. I. Magazine, 1831, p. 140.

1‘EEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS. 329

time. Let India look to itself, as well as devote its enter-
prizing officers to the work of African discovery.

The antipodes of the cannihals with Herodotus were the
])arties who entirely abstained from animal food. “ There
is another set of Indians,” he says, “ whose customs are
very diflerent. They refuse to put any live animal to
death, they sow no corn, and have no dwelling houses.
Vegetables are theii’ only food. There is a plant which
grows wild in their country, bearing seed about the size of
a millet-seed in a calyx ; their wont is to gather this seed,
and having boiled it, calyx and all, to use it for food. If
one of them is attacked with sickness, he goes forth into
(he wilderness, and lies down to die ; no one has the least
concern either for the sick or for the dead.” Herodotus
wrote about the times of the Buddhists ; hut even before
their day great tenderness to animal life had been deve-
loped in India, as a consequence of the doctrine of the
metempsychosis, which however is not to he found in the
Vedas, which in many places exemplify the use of animal
food, even of that of the cow afterwards so sacred throughout
the country. The first limitation as to animal food with
which I am acquainted is in by far the most modern of tlie
Vedas, the Atharvana. It occurs in a command (already
Inferred to) not to kill the “ inedilde cows of the Brah-
mans,” and seems to have in view only the preservation of
their pets.* The avoidance of the use of the cereals by the
vegetarians hinted at by Herodotus is explained partly by
the injunctions in Manu against the destruction of seed.s, the
germs of life, as exemplified in the complaints made against
an oil press. f Why any seed should have been used by the

See before, p. 141.

I Manu, iv. 8o.

330

WHAT CASTE IS.

^ eg-etaiiaiis, scrupulously avoiding com, does not appear.
The dying in the wilderness without the care of friends
may liave a reference to the case of the Vunaprasthas,
whom we have already noticed in this work.

The informers of Herodotus respecting India were
certainly not friendly to its diversified tribes and tongues,
if they had opportunities of actually observing their social
state. “ All the tribes I have mentioned,” he says, “ live
together like the brute beasts,” They were mistaken, too,
when they said that all the tribes of India “ had the same
lint of skin, which approaches that of the Ethiopians.”
'rids language requires to be very considerably qualified,
even when it is applied to the more southern tribes, which
Herodotus must have heard of in the general, for he adds,
“ Their country is a long way from Persia towards tlie
south, nor had king Darius ever any authority over them,”

We have thus exhausted the general, and somewhat
meaore, notices of India found in Herodotus. Nothiuo'
more of this country worthy of attention was learned by
the Greeks till about one hundred and fifty years after
Herodotus, when Alexander the Great, in his attempt to
subdue the Persian empire to the dominion of Macedon,
reached its northern borders. A great flood of light
was doubtless then thrown on India, revealing its pecu-
liarities to intelligent inquirers ; but it has been oidy
<limly reflected to us in the present day. The body of
information obtained respecting it was soon lost for his-
torical purposes. The letters of Alexander himself, sent
from its borders, which are sometimes referred to by
Pliny and Plutarch, have long ago disappeared, while
those bearins: his name, addressed to his tutor Aristotle,

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS.

331

])ear evident marks of forgery. The writings of Callls-
thenes, who was taken to the East by Alexander to write
In’s history, have also perished. We know of Clitarchns,
another of Alexander’s followers, only from a few refer-
ences made to him by Plutarch and others. Orthagoras,
W'ho is said to have written nine hooks about Indian affairs,
is not even quoted by Alexander’s historians. Nearchns,
the admiral of Alexander’s fleet, wrote a history of his own
movements ; hut we have not his work to compare it Avitli
the charges made against it by Strabo in his Geograpliv,
and by Arrian in his Expedition of Alexander. Arrian
himself. — who was a disciple of Epictetus and flourished in
the reign of the Emperor Adrian, — is our chief authority
respecting the observations and deeds of Alexander and
his army in India, though interesting gleanings are to be
got from Strabo, Pliny, Diodorus Siculus, and others.

Alexander’s march from Bactria to the Indus, as
described by Arrian,"''' is interesting principally in a
geographical point of view. Attempts have been made,
Avith considerable success, to reduce the names of places
and persons ^ound in it from their Greek to their Indian
forms. The result warrants the application to the Greek
visitors of India of the remark made by professor H. H.
Wilson on our first English surveyors and geographers
in India : — “ It may be doubted if any of them have been
conv-ersant Avith the spoken language of tlie country :
they have consequently put doAvn names at random,
according to their own inaccurate appreciation of sounds,
carelessly, vulgarly, and corruptly uttered.”')' For

* Ari’iani Expeditionis libro quarto, et seq.

f Vislinu Purana, pp. 178-9. ''

332

WHAT CASTE TS.

example, the Greek (a river) is the Knhha ; the
Choe is the Khonar ; and the Goraia or Goroeas is the
Gduri. The Aspasii are probably connected with
Ashvaka ; Massiga is Mashakd ; and Peucolaitis is
PushkalavatV' It is interesting to' notice that Alex-
ander’s experience of the courage of the mountaineers must
liave been somewhat similar to our own. “ The Indians
of that province,” it is said, “ far excelled all the otlier
Indians in military exploits and, after a trial of tlieir
mettle, lie was glad to engage them as mercenaries,
though he soon found, “that they would not fight against
other Indians.” The cattle of the district attracted his
particular attention. “ Alexander chose the best and
largest (of them), that he might send them into Macedonia
for a breed, for they far excelled the Grecian cattle both in
bulk and beauty.”! “The existence of the vine and ivy in
the country and probably the worship of Shiva, the God
“of increase,” were viewed by the hero and his companions
as an indication that it had been visited by Dionysus (or
Bacchus). The Greeks were perhaps confirmed in their
conjectures about this matter by the Indians, in Avhose
o-enealoo-ical tables a Devanahvsha, a divine personaoe
of the Lunar race, makes an early appearance. The
Indians begged for the saving of their city Nysa, alleging

* To no person are we more indebted for a scientific identification
of many of the geographical names connected with the Indian move-
ments of Alexander than to Professor Lassen. See Indische Alter-
thumskunde, ii. p. 116, et seq.

I Perhaps the bulk and beauty of some of the breeds of Indian cattle
(with their prominently developed dewlaps and humps, which appear
represented on the oldest coins,) as well as their utility, may have con-
tributed to their deification by the Brdhmans.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY' BY THE GREEKS.

333

fliat it had been built by Dijauysus ; and they got off
from a demand for one hundred of their mao-istrates

(tlieir principal Shets) for three hundred horses, and Alex-
ander’s deference to Bacchus, v hom it nas his desire to
excel in the extent of his conquests. Arrian well under-
stood the pretences which were made on both sides in
this case, for he says, that “ The things which the ancients
have published in their fables concerning the Gods, ouoht
not to be too narrowly searched into ; for whenever the
truth of any story seemed to be liable to be called in ques-
tion, some God w’as immediately summoned to iheir aid,
and then all was plain and immediately swallowed.” Mount
Meru, even, was summoned to give testimony for Bacclms,
its name sounding like that of the Greek word Mjjpoc,- (the
upper part of the thigh), which fitted in with the western
legend that Bacchus had been shut up in the thigh of
Jupiter. Connected with the remarkable rock Aornos,
Alexander began to hear of the alleged exploits of a God
(Krishna, as Ave shall afterwards see), whom they identified
Avith their own Hercules- He enjoyed in the contiguous
mountains and forests an elephant hunt, a fact Avhich
shoATS the wide dispersion of that gigantic pacliydenn
in his day.

On arriving at the Indus, probably at ATak, Alexan-
der received presents of submission from Taxiles, an
Indian prince, so called from an Indian town, Talsha-
shild, to Avhich he belonged. This prince he did not
deprive of his territories Avhen he reached his capital.
On the contrary, he enlarged them, though he made
Philip, the son of Machetas, governor of the province in
his own name. Ale.xander’s passage of the Hydaspes,

334

WHAT CASTE IS.

the Vitasid of the Indians, was opposed by the patriotic
and valiant Porus, (or Puras,) who probably derived his
name from Pura a city in general, but given to a
capital and its lord in this district by way of distinction,
according to a usage prevailing to the present day. This
was at the summer solstice, when the river was at its height,
and its passage was effected with great difficulty. Much
fighting followed, which issued in the defeat of Porus,
the death of his two sons and of the governor of the pro-
vince, and the infliction of wounds on hi.s own person.
When Porus came to Alexander, to express his submis-
sion, both his bearing and appearance made a deep im-
pression on the Macedonian conqueror. He was doubt-
less an excellent representative of the ancient Indian
Kshatri}ms, or Rulers.

The next river passed by Alexander was that of the
Acesines, the Asikni of the Hindus. In advance he came
to the Hydrootes, or Rdv'i. Here he heard of a confe-
deration formed against him by certain free Indians and
Calhaei, perhaps a Scythian tribe, the progenitors of the
Kdfhis of Kdthiawdr ; by the Oxydracce and MalU, the
inhabitants of Muldstliana, or Multan of later times. San-
yala, or Shdkala, near Amritasar, lay on his way to the
south-east. He was fired Avith ambition to extend his
conquests beyond the Hyphasis or Vipdsha of the In-
dians ; but the spirits of his men, with the monsoon
storms raging around them and poAverful enemies before
them, failing them, he was obliged to terminate his on-
Avard march and to return to the Hydaspes. By land,
and by the river, his forces were conveyed to the junc-
tion of the Hydaspes and Acesines, and afterwards to

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE CHEEKS.

335

that of the Acesines and Indus. An encounter with the
Malli and the taking of Multan, which nearly cost Alex-
ander his life, were the incidents of this part of his journey.
Tlie identification of various places and persons visited,
or negociated with, by his army on the Indus is not a
matter of difficulty. The Oxydracce were the people of
Uch, to be distinguished from the Hijdracce, the originals
of the Sliudras, in tlie neighbouring district; and the
Abastani, probably AmbdAdhas, whose name appears in
various parts of India. The Xathri, said to be a free people
of India, were doubtless a tribe under the government of
the Kshatriyas. The Assadii were the Vasdt'i. Theland of
Alusicanits was near the present Ladiaklidnd. Sindomana,
the Sinhavan of the Brahmans, was the present Sehwan,
between Upper and Lower Sindh. Paitcda at the head
of the Delta of the Indus, was the Pdtalipuri of the Brah-
mans, and must have been near Haidarabad, and not at
Thatha as supposed by Principal Robertson.* It is not an
object with us at present to notice the perilous jouraey of
Alexander’s army through the country of the Gadrosi and
other tribes, and through Persia to the banks of the Eu-
phrates. As connected with India, however, we may notice
the fact that some of its sages adhered to him during this
journey, even eating at his table as Calanus, — doubtless an
Indian Kalydnah, — who committed voluntary suicide (or
Kamyamarana, forbidden to Brahmans by Manu) [' on the

* See Author’s Journal of a Missionary Tour in Sindh, in the O. C. S.
1850, p. 397.

f See before, p. 2o. Calanus was probably a Bhiitta or Charana,
a eulogist attendant upon kings, like individuals of these classes.
^lanclanis (S. Mandana, as in the name of the author of the Amara
Kosha) was his companion.

336

WHAT CASTE IS,

funeral pile, with the ultimate assent and ca-operatioii of
Alexander himself, who reckoned his death the crowning
act of his strange philosophy.

The information respecting India acquired by the Alex-
andrine invasion, noAv briefly referred to, was doubtless very
considerable in amount, and interesting in character. Il
Avas surpassed, however, in precision and importance by
that acquired by Magasthenes, to the fragments of whose
writings, as quoted by Strabo, Arrian, and others, we now
turn our attention.'"

The original position of Megasthenes with regard to
India has often of late been overlooked. According to his
own statement, found in Arrian,f he was an attache to
Svburtius, governor of the Arachosii, Avho inhabited the
Hamqaiti, of the Parsis (the equivalent of the Sanskrit
JSarasvati ) in eastern Iran*]: While associated Avith Sa^-

burtius he frequently visited Sandracottus (or Sandra-
c>/})ti(s ) king of India, Sandracyptus, as conjectured by
Sir William Jones, aa^is the Chnndmgupta of the Hindus,
the grandfather of the Emperor Ashoka, the great patron
of the Buddhists. It was under Seleucus, the successor of
Alexander, aa'Iio had made a treaty AAith him about portions
of territory Avest of the Indus, that Megasthenes visited
liis court at his capital PalibotJira, or PdtaUputra, at the
confluence of the Eranohoas (or Shona) and Ganges, near
the modern Patna, and Avhich he assures us Avas eighty
furlono's in length and fifteen in breadth, Avith a ditch
thirty cubits deep, and a Avail AA'itli five hundred and seventy

* These have been collected (but not translated) by Dr. Schwanbeck,
in his Megasthenis Indica, Bonn®, 184G.

j Arriaui lib. v. cap. 6. f See before, p. 81.

rEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS. 337

lo\vers and sixt y-four gates.* Tlie discovery of a real Indian
(latum, well called by Dr. Max Muller “the sheet anchor
of Indian chronology,” (the only date which promises in any
good degree an adjustment of any portion of our Indian
genealogies), is the consequence of this recognition. Justin f
tells us that Sandracottus had seized the throne of India
(from tlie last of the Nandas, it appears from the Indian
account) after the prefects of Alexander had been murdur-
ed (317 B- C.) Seleucus found him sovereign of India
wlien, after the taking of Babylon and the conquest of
Bactria, he passed on to India, to make secure arrangements
with its emperor. It was then he concluded the treaty
with him, which must have been before the year 312, for
after his return to Babylon, he founded the era which bears
his own name, tlie Seleucidan era. It is concluded from
this that Chandragupta became king about B. C. 315. It
must have been about the year 312 that Megasthenes first
visited his court. ;{; It is on the people of India that the
information which he communicates to us principally turns.

Megasthenes, as is well known, divides the pojiulation
of India into seven principal divisions or classes
a word which does not necessarily mean Castes). These
are those of the Philosophers, the Agriculturists, the
Shepherds and Hunters, the Artizans, Hucksters and
Bodily Labourers, the Warriors, the Inspectors, and the
Counsellors and Assessors of the king. Those who have

* For the identification of Palibothra and Pataliputra, we are indebted
to Major Rennell. Robertson’s dissent from Reunell (Note xiv. to Dis-
quisition) is groundless.

t Justin XV- 4.

I See Max Muller’s Hist, of Sans. Lit.

4.1

338

WHAT CASTE IS.

viewed these divisions as indicating Castes, looked to either
from a Brahmanical or a Buddhist point of viesv, have been
much puzzled with this classification, for it is really not
reconcilable with any specific classification of Castes noticed
anywhere in the Indian literature. Tlie classification, it
appears to me, is either that of Megasthenes himself, or of
the political authorities of Palibothra with whom he came
ill contact. After referring to the Philosophers, as in a
position eutu’ely peculiar, it rises from the Husbandman, —
wliom he views with much regard, — to the Royal Counsel-
lors, next in authority to the king himself. Notwithstand-
ing this peculiarity of the classification of Megasthenes, the
inlormation which his notices of the classes embraced by
him atford is of great value, and throws considerable
light even on the Caste system prevalent in his day. It is
deserving of attention in all its details.

1. Of the Philosophers, Megasthenes thus writes (I
{piote from him as cited by Strabo,* who is more copious
in his quotations than Arrian) : —

“ Among the classes, the first in honour, though in num-
ber the smallest, are the philosophers. People who offer
sacrifice or perform any sacred rite have the services of
those persons on their private account ; but the kings
employ them in a public capacity at the time of what is
called the Great Synod, where at the time of the new year
all the philosophers repair to the king at the gate, and
any useful thing which they have committed to writing, or
observed, tending to improve the production of fruits or of
animals, or of advantage to the order of the state, is then

* Strab. Geog. lib. xv. 1. et seq.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS. 330

publicly set forth. And whoever has been detected in thrice
<riving hilse information is enjoined silence by law for the
rest of his life ; but he who has made correct observations
is for the rest of his life exempted from cess and tribute.”*
The employment of the philosophers for sacrifice and
domestic religious rites has a plain reference to the Brah-
mans and the rites which they were accustomed to celebrate ;
while the conijreo'atino: of wise men in annual assemblies
seems to point to arrangements of a Buddhist character.
The observational powers of the Buddhist mendicants,
accustomed to visit towns and villages and to travel throug^h
the country, would doubtless be greatly developed and
improved by tbe enlargement of their experience, while the
state would profit by their annual reports of discover3^ The
arrangements thus acted on, however humble in character,
were somewhat similar in principle to those of the British
Association in our own da}% when there are exchanges of
congratulation in the brotherhood of science, and when
the public tenders its approbation to those who in science
and practical art have successfully laboured for the public
good. It is curious to observe the discipline of the Indian
assemblies, embracing both punishments and rewards.
Silence for life for false reporters and incorrect observers
three times erring (though it may have been limited to a
deprivation merely of tbe right of public speech) was a
heavy punishment, while exemption from tax and triliute
was a great boon bestowed on the lovers of truth and
accuracy. This exemption was a great improvement of
the laws, afterwards embodied in the code of Mann, ex-
empting Brahmans from all taxation.f

f See before, p. 39.

* Strab. Geo. lib. xv. 1.

340

WHAT CASTE IS.

Megastlieiie.s, I may liere mention, in connexion with
the Pliilosophers, refers to those of the mountains (prohahlv
Avorshippers of the mountain-god Shiva,) as in favom- of the
alleged visit of Bacchus to India.* He recognizes the in-
hahitants of the plains, however, as addicted to the Avorship
of Hercides. This so-called “ Hercules” was undoubtedly
the Indian Krishna, whose fabidous achievements, so much
resembling those of Hercules, were about this time brought
to notice, while his worship was only locally prevalent
“Hercides,” Aviites Arrian on the authority of Megasthenes
“the Indians tell us Avas a native of their country. He is
particularly Avorshipped by the Suraseni [the Shurasenas ol'
the Hindu literature] aa'Iio have two great cities belonging
to them, Methoras [AAdiich Ave cannot fail to identify as
Mathurd, a favourite residence of Krishna] and Kliso-
horas," [probably a corruption of the name Kris]inapura\
The district referred to is evidently that of the legends of the
Hindus at the time of Megasthenes respecting Krishna, a
modern god, Avdiose name is not once mentioned in the
ancient Vedas. Megasthenes adds respecting Hercules,
evidently liaAnng Krishna iu his eye, that “ he took many
Avives, and begot a great number of sons, though hut one
daughter whom he named Pandcea,"'\ a name in which Ave
lind an indistinct trace of the Pandaya dynasty of the
Mahabharata. Kri.sbna was only a deifiedking, Ai hose name
appears at the close of the Yadii branch of the Lunar race.

In treating of the Philosophers, Megasthenes recognizes
both the Brahmans iiwd the Buddhist Shramanas.X “ i\Ie-
gasthenes,” says Strabo, “ divides the philosophers into two
* Strab. Geo., xv. 1. 58. f Arr. Hist. In. cap. viii.
i See before, p. 295.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY PY THE GREEKS. 3 il

kinds, the Bn'ichmanes imi\. the Gannaues* The Bracli-
manes are lield in greater repute, for they agree more
exactly in tlieir opinions. Even from tlie time of their
conception in the womb they are under the care and guar-
dianship of learned men, who go to the mother, and seem
to perform some incantation for the happiness and Avelfare
of the mother and the unborn child, but in reality they
suggest prudent advice, and the mothers who listen to
them most ^villingly are thought to be the most fortunate
in their otfspiing. After the birth of the children, there is
a succession of persons who have the care of them, and as
they advance in years, masters more able and accomplished
succeed.”t The Brahmans he here sets forth as of greater
repute than the Shramanakas. He represents them as
objects of care from their very conception, having probably
received some indistinct account of the antenatal Sanskdms,
or sacraments of the Hindus . He seems to have been
aware of the formalities of their tutelage under a succession
of teachers, according to the Hindu institutes. The self-
denial of these philosophers he distinctly notices, “ The
philosophers,” he says, “ pass their time in a grove of moder-
ate area, living upon straw pallets and on skins, abstain-
ing from animal food, and from sexual intercourse with
women, engaging tliemselves in grave discourses, and
communicating with those inclined to listen to them. But
the hearer is not permitted to speak or to cough, or even
to spit on the ground ; otherwise he is expelled that very
day from their society, as having no control over himself.
After living thirty-seven years in this manner, each retires
Sarmanas, Clem. Alex. Strom, i. 305.
t Strab. Geog. lib. xv. I. 59. Falconer’s Translation, iii- p- 109.

342

WHAT CASTE IS.

to his own property, and lives with less restraint, wearing'
robes of fine linen, and rings of gold, hnt without pro-
fusion on the hands and ears. They eat the flesh of
animals, hnt not that of those which assist man in his labom’,
and abstain from pungent and seasoned food. They practise
polygamy for the sake of abundant offspring. If they have
no servants, they supply then- place by their own childi'en,
for the more nearly any person is related to another, the
more is he bound to attend to his wants.” Megasthenes
seems to have had in view in this section principally the third
and foiuTh ashramas of the Brahmans, (of which the fourth
is the milder,) though he concludes it by a reference to
the second, that of the Householder.* The Brahmans, he
goes on to say, (in conformity with what we find in the
Hindu literature) do not sufler their wives to attend their
philosophical discourses. The reasons alleged by him for
this reserve are the danger of the divulgence of secrets,
the assertion of independence by instructed females, and
their desertion of their husbands — reasonswhich, vsdth some,
are alleged to the present day against female instruction.

Of the doctrine of a futiu’e state as taught by the
Brahmans, Megasthenes had but partial notions. “ They
discourse,” he says, ‘•much on death, for it is their opinion
that the present life is the state of one conceived in the
womb, and that death to philosophers is birth to a real and
happy life.” He was better informed about the non-recog-
nition by them, under certain courses of teaching, of the
absence of good and evil in the accidents of life. He
rightly speaks of many of their notions of natural pheno-
mena heino' founded merelv on fables. He notices the

O V

* See before, pp. 28-3u.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS. 343

opinion of tlie Brahmans that the earth is spherical, from
which it would appear that something had been said to him
of the Brahmanda, or egg of Brahma, and that there is a
fifth element, doubtless the akcislta of the Indian sages.
The “ most honourable” of the Garmanes, — whom in the
gross we recognize as principally the Buddhist Shra-
manas, — he declares to he the Hylohii. The word Vdna-
prasthdh (“ dwellers in the forest”) is the literal rendering
of Hylohii, and the technical designation of the parties in
the fourth A'shrama of the Brahmans ; and these he may
have erroneou.sly classed uitli the Buddhist Shrarnanas^
more particularly as they had not a monopoly of this name,
though it was applied to them by way of distinction.

Of the Physicians Megasthenes thus writes : — “ Second
in honour to the Hylohii are the Physicians ; for they apply
philosophy to the study of the nature of man. They are
of frugal habits, but do not live in the fields, and subsist
upon rice and meal, which every one gives when asked,
and receives them hospitably, ddiey are able to cause
persons to liaA^e a numerous offspring and to have either
male or female children, by means of charms. They cure
diseases by diet rather than by medicinal remedies.
Among the latter the most in repute are unguents and
cataplasms. All others they suppose partake greatly of
a noxious nature. Both this and the other class of
persons [the Brahmanical devotees ?] practise fortitude as
well in supporting active toil as in enduring suffering, so
that they will continue a whole day in the same posture,
without motion. They are enchanters and diviners, versed
in the rites and customs relative to the dead, who go about
villages and towns begging. There are others who are

314

AVHAT CASTE IS.

more civilized and better informed than these, who incul-
cate tlie vulgar opinions concerning Hades, whicli according
to tlieir idea tend to piety and sanctity. Women study
pliifosopliy with some of them, abstaining at the same
time from sensual connexions.” This, certainly, mainly
jqiplies to the Buddhist devotees among Avhom were females
as Avell as males.*

JMegasthenes further correctly mentions that self-des-
truction is not a dogma of the philosophers (applicable
to themselves), and that those who committed the act
Avere reckoned fool-hardy.

2. Respecting the Husbandmen, Megasthenes says,
“ The second class is that of the Husbandmen, who are
the most numerous and mildest, as they are exempted
from militaiy^ service and cultivate their land free from
alarm. They do not resort to cities, either to transact
public business, or take part in public tumults. It there-
fore frequently happens that at the same time, and in
the same part of the country, one body of men are in
battle array, and engaged in contests with the enemy,
while others are ploughing or digging in security, leav-
ing the soldiers to protect them. The whole of the ter-
ritory belongs to the king. They cultivate it on the
terms of receiving as wages, the fourth part of the pro-
duce.” This deference to agricultural pursuits by
the Indians in times of AA’ar has more or less continued
to the present time. As the cultivation of the land is
here mentioned as a distinct employment and separated

* Clitarchus had probably Buddhists in view when he represents
them under the name of Pramnoe as opposed to the Brachmanes.
Strab. Geo. xv. 1. 70.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GKEEKS. 345

from the reaving of cattle, and the practice of merchan-
dise associated in the law-books with the caste privileges
of the Vaislnja, it is perhaps not erroneous to infer tliat
the term Vaish}’a w'as applied to parties separately fol-
lowing either of these occupations.

3. Respecting thePasiors and Hunters, our informant
writes : — “ The third class is that of the Pastors and
Hunters, who alone are permitted to hunt, to breed
cattle, to sell and to let out for hire beasts of burden.
In return from freeing the country from wild beasts and
birds, whicli infest sown fields, they receive an allow-
ance of corn from the king. They lead a wandering
life, and dwell in tents. No private person is allowed
to keep a horse or an elephant. The possession of either
one or the other is a royal privilege, and persons are
appointed to take care of them.””" The distinction of
cowherds, shepherds, and hunters, from other portions
of the Indian population, continues to the present day.

4. Of the Artizans, Hucksters, and Labourers, Megas-
thenes thus writes “ After the Hunters and the Shep-
herds, follows the fourth class, which consists of the
Artizans, Hucksters, and Labourers. Some of these
pay taxes and perform certain stated services. But the
Armour-makers and Sliip-builders receive wages from
the king, for whom only they work. The general-in-
chief furnishes the soldiers with arms, and the admiral
lets out ships for hire to those who undertake voyages
and traffic as merchants.”

* This is followed by an account of the taking the elephant, partly
correct and partly inaccurate. Our author also repeats the story of
the ants and the gold-finding, much in the form of Herodotus.

346

WHAT CASTE IS.

5. Of the Military, he saj^s:— “ The fifth class consists
of fighting- men who pass tlie time not employed in the
field in idleness and drinking-, and are maintained at the
charge of the king. They are ready whenever they are
w^anted to march on an expedition, for they bring nothing
of their own with them except their bodies.’’ These
troops, it is interesting to notice, were embodied as a
standing army. It is not apparent that in caste they were
necessarily Kshatriyas. They seem not to have been
much troubled with what the Romans reckoned “ impedi-
menta viae.”

6. Of the Inspectors, he says : — “The sixth class is
that of the Ephori or Inspectors. They are intrusted with
the superintendence of all that is going on; and it is
their duty to report privately to the king. The city
inspectors employ as their coadjutors the city courtezans;
and the inspectors of the camp, the women who follow it»
The best and the most faithful persons are appointed to
the office of inspector.” All this may be correct. It is
part of the duty of a king, as laid down in the Law-books,
to deal with spies and emissaries after sunset.’- Glimpses
of Inspectors may be got even in the older literature of
the Indians.f

7. Of the Coimsellers ajid Assessors of the kiny, he
says: — “ To these persons belong the offices of state, the
tribunals ofjustice, andtbe wholeadministration of affairs.”
This is pretty much in accordance with what Manu tells us
of the royal counsellors. In connexion with this part of

* See before, p. 41.

•j- See some correspondiug designations in the Puru.sha Medha, iit
supra, pp. 127-132.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS.

347

his subject, Megastlienes brings to notice two of the
actual principles of caste : — “ It is not permitted to con-
tract marriage with a person of another caste,*'" nor to
change from one profession or trade to another, nor for the
same person to undertake more than one, except he is of
the caste of pliilosophers, when permission is given on
account of his dignity.”

Returning to the ruling class, Megasthenessays : — “Of
the Magistrates some have the charge of the

market, others of the city, others of the soldiery. Some
have the care of the rivers, measure the land as in Egypt,
and inspect the closed reservoirs from which water is distri-
buted by canals, so that all may have an equal use of it.
These persons have the charge also of the hunters, and
have the power of rewarding or punishing those who merit
either. They collect the taxes, and superintend the occu-
pations connected with land, as woodcutters, carpenters,
workers in brass, and miners. They superintend the public
roads and place a pillar at every ten stadia, to indicate the
bye- ways and distances.” In all this there is pleasing
testimony to advancement in economic civilization.

The most curious arrangements noticed by Megas-
thenes, in this connexion, respect the governors of citie.s.
He tells us they are divided into six Pentads (panchakas),
Cornmittees-of-live, with very special duties attached to
each pentad. The first pentad superintended the fabri-
cative operations, being a sort of Committee of Public
Works. The second had charge of the relief of strangers,
the burial of the friendless dead, and the care of their

* Fevgcj the Avord Avliich at p. 13 of this work is used as the Greek
equivalent of jdtl. The word above translated “ class” is iiioog.

348

WHAT CASTE IS.

property. The tliird took cognizance of birtlis and
deaths, with a view to revenue purpo.ses, which may
explain the aversion of the natives of India to statistical
inquiries. The fourth discharged the duties of the Bazar-
masters, attending’ to weights and measures, and doubling
the tax when the shopkeeper dealt in a variety of articles.
The fifth took cognizance of manufactured articles and
their sale, distinguishing old articles from new ones.
The sixth collected the tenth of the price of the articles
sold, inflicting death on parties guilty of fraud in this
matter. This division of labour did not supersede the
common consultation and responsibility of the general
bod}'- of the pentads.

An equally minute division of labour was apparent in
connexion with the management of military affairs, con-
nected with which there were also si.x Pentads. The
first of these acted under the naval superintendent, and
its members were consequent!}^ miniature Lords of the
Admiralty. The second managed the Commissariate and
Transit Department, under a president, having charge of
the bullock-trains for the military engines, baggage,
instruments of music, grooms, mechanists, and foragers,
whom they rewarded or punished according to their
deserts. The third had charge of the infantry ; the fourth,
of the horses ; tlie fifth, of the chariots ; the sixth, of the
elephants. In connexion with the notice of tliese arrange-
ments, Megasthenes makes the following precise state-
ments:— “There are roval stables for the horses and
elephants. Tiiere is also a royal magazine of arms ; for
the soldier returns his arms to the armourv, and the
horse and elephant to the stables. They use the elephants

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS. 340

williout bridles. The chariots are drawn on the inarch
by oxen. The liorses are led by a halter, in order that
their legs may not be chafed and inflamed, nor their spirit
damped by drawing chariots. Besides the charioteer,
there are two persons who fight by his side in the chariot.
With the elephant are four persons, the driver and three
bowmen, wlio discharge arrows from his back.”

These details all bear witness to what we have often
noticed, the division of labour among the ancient Indians,
and show the existence in tlie time of Megasthenes of
parties with designations similar to those contained in the
lists already introduced into this work.

Several miscellaneous notices of the Indian people,
bearing on the social state of the Indians, are introduced
by Strabo and Arrian on the authority of Megastlienes
in a somewhat digressional form. The whole country
of India was divided, it is said, into a hundred and
twenty-two nations, an estimate probably not below the
truth. The people were frugal in their mode of life,
using no wine except in sacrifices (the reference is pro-
bably to the Soma), and their food being principally of
rice. They were fond of ablutions and unctions ; of the
frictional rubbing of the body ; and of ornaments of the
])recious stones and metals. They were remarkable for
their regard for truth ; their polygamous alliances,
eflected through purchase and favour ; their tolerance of
professional whoredom ; their early marriages in the case
of girls, who might be espoused when seven years old;
their sacrificing with their heads uncovered ; their killing
animals by suflbcation, in order to avoid bloodshed ;
their punishing crimes by maiming (as enjoined in the

350

WHAT CASTE IS.

Law-books) ; their care of the persons of the kings by
slave-girls ; their demands on kings for labour and
recreation during the day ; and other customs known to
be consistent with Indian histoiy. They are spoken of as
ignorant of letters, or writing ; and as conducting public
business memoriter, without an accessible body of law,
and without the use of seals. This may have been really
the case with the body of the Indians in the time of
Megasthenes, for the oldest known form of the Indian
alphabets bears evidence of a Grecian and Phenician origin,
and was not unlikely devised after the invasion of Alex-
ander the Great.*

Megasthenes is accused of deviating into fables when
he speaks of Indian dwarfish races of five or three spans
in height, and without nostrils, but with breathing ori-
fices about the mouth ; of Enocoitoe, who slept on their
ears which hung down to their feet ; of tribes witli heels
in front, and instep and toes turned back ; of Ocypadoe,
so swift of foot that they left horses behind them ; of
JMonomati, who had only one eye placed in the middle
of the forehead, with hair erect and shaggy breasts ; of
Amyctei’es, without nostrils, with the upper part of the
lips projecting ; and of various other curious and hideous
monsters. The absurdity of his narrative in regard
to these matters needs no exposure ; but it is interesting

* Clitarchus, as Avell as Megasthenes, testified to the Indian ignor-
ance of writing. On the probable non-use of literal writing among
the ancient Indians, see notice by the author in “ India Three
Thousand Years Ago,” pp 31-36 ; and more particular!}^ Max Muller’s
Hist, of Sans. Lit. pp. 500-524, compared with Goldstucker’s Intro-
duction to the Manava Sutras, pp. 15-67.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS. 351

to know that the more uncivilized tribes of India are
characterized in this strange manner even in tlie classical
Hindu literature. Professor H. H. Wilson, when quoting
from the Mahabliarata the dig-vijaya of the Bhishma
Parva, inserts the following note, on the mention of the
people called Naikaprishljias (having-more-than-one-
back) “ probably some nickname or term of derision”

“ Thus we have in the Ramayana and other works, enu-
merated amongst tribes, the Karnapravaranas, those who
wrap themselves up in their ears ; AshtJia-karnakas, the
eight-eared ; or Oshtha-karnakas, having lips extending
to their ears ; Kakarnukhas, crow-faced ; E' kapaclukas,
one-footed, or rather one-slippered : exaggerations of na-
tional ugliness, or allusions to peculiar customs, which
were not literail}'^ intended, although they may have
furnished the Mandevilles of ancient and modern times
with some of their monsters.”* Even in the Vedas,
human monsters are alleged to exist.t

An interesting portion of the fragments of Megasthenes
is that which refers to the Indian genealogies. It is
difficult to identify the few Indian names which he indi-
cates. Yet, with Lassen and others, all Indian scholars
must see Svayamhhuva (the self-existent) in his Spar-
tembas ; Buddha, in his Budyas; Pururavas, in his
Frareuas, supposed to have been written for Kradeuas —
the present reading. His names, with the exception
perhaps of the last, are those of divinities heading the

♦ Wilson’s Vislinu Parana, p. 187. See, also, on the names of the
Indian monstrous people Schwanbeck’s Megasthenis Tndica, pp. 6 4, et seq.

I See before, p. 96.

352

WHAT CASTE IS.

genealogies, partly of tlie Solar and partly of the Lunar
Dynasties, confounded by him together. Megasthenes
says that the Indians reckon from Bacchus (whom they
made the contemporary of Spartembas) one hundred and
fifty-three kings, reigning during the space of six
thousand and forty-two years. The statement agrees
with none of the genealogical lists possessed by the
Hindus, even when they are viewed as including their
fabulous personages. The only safe conclusion is, that
genealogical lists were actually recited by the natives at
the time of his visit to India. We get no chronological
help from him, except in the mention of the name of
Sandracottus (Chandragupta), which affords us the valu-
able historical datum already alluded to.

We have before noticed the fact that the Greeks con-
founded Shiva and Krislma with Bacchus and Hercules,
in the concept and legends of whom there is certainly
some analogy. They were nearer the truth, when, as
Strabo sa}"s, they related that the Indians worsliipped
Jupiter Ombrius, the river Ganges, and the indigenous
deities of the country.* In Jupiter Ombrius we doubt-
less find the Indian Indra, by whose influence it was sup-
posed the clouds shed down their watery treasures. Indra
was worshipped of old by all classes of the Indians, though
he was reckoned the special deity of the Kshatriyas.

It must be apparent from* the notices now given, that
thouoh the Greek accounts of India are, from the form in
which they have reached us, not all that could be desired,

* Strab. Geog. xv. 1. 69. I have throughout this chapter referred
to Megasthenes, as quoted in this chapter of Strabo, and in Arrian’s
Indian History, chapters vi-xvi.

PEEP AT INDIAN SOCIETY BY THE GREEKS. 353

tliey are really of a valuable and interesting character,
from the light which they cast on the social state of the
Indians at the times of which they treat. They afford
no ju’oof, however, that the Greeks recognized their rela-
tionship to the ruling tribes of India, or discovered the
fact that the Greek and Sanskrit are cognate lanouao-es.
Thev became known to the Indians, under the name of
Yavauas (Twvee), by^ wdiich the Greco- Bactrians were
afterwards distinguished. By the Greco-Bactrian, Greco-
Indian, Indo-Scythian and Parthian Kings, whose
coins have of late years been brought to light, and whose ,
dominions extended to the northern provinces of India,
important local modifications were doubtless made in
Indian caste and customs ; but of these no historical no-
tices are to be found. India became greatly indebted to
Bactrian art, the indications of which are not wanting in
the Buddhist remains of Western India ; and this obliga-
tion would not be unnoticed by the hereditary limners,
painters, sculptors, and architects of India, and by those,
who, under the Buddhist relaxation of Caste, felt at liberty
to adopt occupations suited to their own genius and
inclinations.

It may be here mentioned, though by anticipation,
that our obligations to Claudius Ptole:ny of Alexandria
(of the second centuiy after Christ) for the identification
and localization of many of the peoples and tribes of India
are great indeed. A few of these identifications and
localizations have been already incidentally referred to in
the preceding pages.* Others of them will be noticed
when I review the Hindu Castes as they at present exist.

* See before, pp. 55, 57, 111, 155, 170, 227.

354

AVIIAT CASTE IS.

IX. — Caste in the Law-Books and L.\ter Indian

Literature.

Both the Smartta Sutras (or Sutras founded on the
Smriti or “ what is remembered”) and the Smritis
themselves having the same origin, form what are called
the Hindu Dharmashdstras,* or Law-Books. They do
not claim an origin similar to that of the Vedas or even
that of the Brahmanas, A'ranyakas, Upanishads, and
Shrauta Sutras, associated with the Vedas, to which we
have already appealed. Yet their authority is scarcely
of a secondary character. They are practically all-pre-
valent in the Indian community. The more ancient of
them contain the record of the laws and customs held to
have been long current in the Indian communit}^ and
learned either by simple tradition, or from interpretations
made of Vedic works, by supposed Bislns in whose
behalf it is asserted that thei'^ were perfect from their
birth, and possessed of divine vision. It is generally
maintained by the Hindus that Vedic authority is wanting
to them in any respect, only because portions of the
Vedic works, ( Brahmanas and Sutras) on which they were
originally founded, have altogether perished. They are
written in shlokas, a peculiar versification, or “ measured
prose” as it is denominated by Sir William Jones, but
are not poetical in the proper sense of the term. More
comments have been written upon them, and digests
made of them, than in the case of any other Indian
writings. The personal, and social, and civil, and religious

From Dhdrma, law, and shdstra, institute.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

355

affairs of tlie Hindus liave been conducted accordins: to
them for many generations. They are held to be superior
in authority both to the two works of Itihasa (the Ea-
mayana and Mahabliarata) and to the Eighteen Puranas.

The Hindus of Western India speak of Eighteen Smritis
and Eighteen Upasmritis. The classifications of them
under these heads, however, do not agree. The following
is an alphabetical list of the best-known Smritis without
reference to this distinction : —

1. Atri, of 115 Shlokas, treating cf Dana (largesses
to Brahmans) and Penances.

2. Angiras, of 165 Shlokas, treating of ceremonial
Defilement and Penances.

3. A'paslcmha, of 200 Shlokas. This work is very
similar to that of Ano iras.

4. A'shvalayami, of about 1000 Shlokas, treating of
the Daily Ceremonies of the Brahmans, the Sixteen
Sanskaras, the Shraddhas, the Daily Homa, the general
Duties of the Castes (treated of as in other. parts of this
work), and the Death Ceremonies.

5. Baudhayana, of 1 100 Shlokas, treating of Purity
and Impurity, and Atonements.

6. BhdraJvaja. This work is now very rare.

7. Brihaspoti, of 50 Shlokas, treating of Dana.

8. Budho, of 22 Shlokas, treating of the Sanskaras,
and the Duties of the four Principal Castes.

9. Dalcuha, of 150 Shlokas, treating of the four Brah-
manical Ashramas, and of Daily Ceremonies and Duties.

10. Devala, of 90 Shlokas, treating of the four Prin-
cipal Castes, their Daily Duties, Defilement, Purification,
and Penance.

WPIAT CASTE IS.

11 Gautama, of about 450 Slilokas, treatino' of the
♦Sanskaras, the relative Position and Duties of the four
Castes, Funeral Ceremonies, and Penance.

12. Harita, of about 125 Shlokas, treating of Pe-
nance and Funeral Ceremonies-

1-3. JdbaU.

14. Jaimini.

1 5. Jamadagni.

16. Kashyaj)a.

17. occupying twelve leaves in Calcutta
edition in Beno-ali character.*

18. Kauskald, of about 300 Shlokas, treatino- of
Dosha (stains) and Penance.

19. KoJiila, of 306 Shlokas, treating of Shraddhas

20. LauydksM.

21. Likhita, of about 100 Shlokas; treating of Daua^
Penance, and Funeral Ceremonies.

22. Manu, of 2685 Shlokas, as counted by Sir William
.Tones. The following is its own summary of contents —

The Creation of the World, Laws of the Sanskaras, Observ-
ances, Ablutions, Marriage, the great Sacrifices, Funeial
Ceremonies, Occupations, Family Rules, Things to be Ate
andnot-Ate, Defilements, Purifications (of men) audUtensils,
tbe Duty of Women, the Practice of the Yoga, Tapa,
Moksha, and Sanyasa, the Duty of Kings, Decision of
Cases, Taking of Evidence, and Examination, Law of
Husband and AVife, Inheritance, Gambling, Punishment
of Criminals, the A'chara (or Dutiful Walk) of Vaishyas
aud Shudras, Origin of the Mixed Castes, the Duties of all
Classes in times of Distress, Rules of Penance, Escape
* See Bibl. Sansk. of Gildemeister, p. 127.

CASTE IX TflE EAW-BOOKS.

357

from Worldly Connexion, Enjoyment of the three kinds of
Emits of Works, Liberation, the Knowledge of Good and
Evil, the Duties owed to One’s Country, to One’s Caste, to
One’s Family, Heretics, and Companies of Traders).*

23. Narayana.

24. Pardshara, of 3,300 Shlokas, treating (after the
Upodghdta, or Introduction) of the Daily Ceremonies,
the Four Ashramas, Sacrifice, Marriage, Funeral Cere-
monies, Purity and Impurity, Penance, Toucli, Eatables
and Non-Eatahles, Largesses, Rendering of the Planets,
Houses, Temples, etc. Propitious, Duties of Kings. This
Smriti also appears in an abridged form, of 541 Shlokas.

25. The Prajdpati or Brahmd, of 200 Shlokas,
treating of the ordinances for Shraddhas.

26. Sanvarttaka, of 216 Shlokas, treating of the
Daily Ceremonies, Largesses, the Castes, the A'shramas,^
and Penances.

27. Shdtdtapa, of 200 Shlokas, treating of Penance.

28. Shaunaka, of 204 Shlokas, treating of Sacrifice.

29. Shankha, of 200 Shlokas, treating of Deeds that
are Right or Wrong {Dliarmddharma), Purity and Im-
purity, Daily Ceremonies, and Funeral Ceremonies.

* Manusmriti, i. 111-118. The contents of the twelve chapters are
thus expressed by Sir William Jones. I. On the Creation; with a
Summary of the Contents. II. On Education ; or on the First Order.
III. On Mandage ; or on the Second Order. IV. On Economicks, and
Private Morals. V. On Diet, Purification, and Women. VI. On
Devotion ; or on the Third and Fourth Orders. VII. On Government ;
or on the Military Class. VIII. On Judicature; and on Law, Private
and Criminal. IX. On the Commercial and .Servile Classes. X. On
the Mixed Classes, and on Times of Distress. XI. On Penance and
Expiation. XII. On Transmigration and final Beatitude.

35S

WHAT CASTE IS.

30. Ushana, of 150 Shlokas, treating of Purity and
Impurity, the Castes, Funeral Ceremonies, Buying’ and
Selling, and Penance.

31. V am ana.

32. Vashishtha, a favourite of the Vai.<hnavas, whom
it supports from a sectarial point of view.

33. Vishnu. Of this I have seen only the Laghu, or
abridged form, which consists only of 110 Shlokas,
treating of the Sacraments, A'shramas, and Castes.

34. Vriddhashdtdlapa.

35. Vydsa, of 84 Shlokas, treating of the Castes,
A'shramas, and Largesses.

36. Ydjnavalhja, of 1200 Shlokas. The first Divi-
sion of this work, entitled A'charadhyaya, (the A'chara
chapter) contains thirteen sections, treating of Introduc-
tory Matters, Pupilage, Marriage, the Castes, the Duties
of a Householder, the Duties of the state intervening
between Pupilage and Marriage, Food permitted and for-
bidden, Purification, Largesses, Funeral Ceremonies, the
Worship of Ganapati, Propitiating the Planets, etc., the
Duty of Kings. The second, entitled the Vyavahara-
dhyaya, contains twenty-three sections, treating of Intro-
ductory Matters, Pay raent of Debts, Oral Evidence, Written
Evidence, Trial Ordeal, Partition of Heritage, Boun-
dary Disputes between Master and Servant, Sale of what
has no Owner, Reversal of Gifts, Repenting of Sale or
Purchase, Service by Contract, Opposition to Customs or
Bye-Laws, Non-payment of Wages, Gambling, Abuse by
Speech, Assaults, Violence, Reversal of Sale, Partnership,
Theft and Robbery, Fornication and Adultery, Miscel-
lanies. The third, entitled the Prayashchitadhaya, treats of

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS. 359

the Atonements for Impurity, for Compromises in Times
of Difficulty, for a Vanaprastha, for a Parivraja, for Com-
promises incase of Disease, for killing Brahmans, for killing
Cows, for various kinds of Slaughter, for Spirit-drinking,
for Theft, for breaking Caste, for Debauchery of Women,
for Eating at Funeral Ceremonies, for Inferior Sins, for
Eatino- Thinofs forbidden, for Wearing Blue Clothino;, etc.

It will be observed, on looking to this list, that most of
these Smritis are exceedingly brief Some of them appear

to me to he made up of the collected quotations ascribed to
their respective authors, and not to be distinctive works,
forming either individual treatises, or a Code of Laws.
As to an arrangement of them, founded either upon their
age or matter, the Hindus are not agreed. Vijnaneshvara,
the aiithor of the great commentary on Yajnavalkya,
mentions twenty-four of them in the following order : — •
Mann, Atri, Vi.shnu, Harita, Yajnavalkya, Ushana,
Angira, Yama, A'pastamba, Sanvartta, Katyayana,
Brihaspati, Parashara, Vyasa, Shankha, Likhita, Daksha,
Gautama, Shatatapa, and Vasi.shtha.* He does not,
however, consider this list exhaustive.

* Mitakshara, i. 1. (p. 2, Cal. Ed. of 1813). Nilakanpia Bhatta
(in tlie Sanskara Maynklia 1. p. 1.) after quoting this list of
twenty-one authors of Smritis gives the following other list on
the authority of Paithina ; — Manu, Angira, Vyasa, Gautama, Atri,
Ushana, Yama, Vasishtha, Daksha, Sanvartta, Shatatapa, Para-
shara, Vishnu, A'pastamba, Harita, Shankha. Katyayana, Guru (alias
Brihaspati), '^'Prafheta, *Narada, *Yogi, Baudhayana, Pitamaha
(alias Brahma orPrajapati),Subantu, Kashyapa, *Babhru, ••'Paithina,
*Vyaghra, '• Satyavrata, Bhiiradvaja, *Girgya, Katyayana (name re-
peated in the MS.), Jabdli, Jamadagni, Laugakshi, ^Brahmasanbhava.
To the Smritis in this list not mentioned above, I have prefixed an
asterisk. Nilakantha gives the preference to Manu of all the Smritis.

3G0

WHAT CASTE IS.

Copies of the minor Smritis are now rather rare, tlie
Hindus being generally satisfied with the references made
to them in their Digests of Loav. The folloAving is the
substance of that of Angir 'a. It treats of A’arious Penances

for Caste and other otfences, and is intimately con-
nected with the subject of Caste under onr notice.

Repeat the Penances (prescribed) in the case of the A’shramas, and
all the Varnas. A Brahman drinking out of the vessel or well of a
Chandala is to perform the Santapana ;* the Kshatriya, the Prajapatya ; f
the Vaishya, half the atonement of the Kshatriya ; and the Shudra, the
half of that of the Vaishya. The water of a Chandila oirght to be out-
vomited by these classes as soon as swallowed, and the Prajapatya
Penance performed. If the water has remained for some time in the
stomach, the Brahman has to perform the Krichchhra,| and Santapana.
If water from the vessel of a Chandala be drunk in consequence of
thirst, cow's urine must be drunk for three days. If any Dvija (twice-
born) person [a Brahman, Kshatriya, or Vaishya] do not wash his
hands after relieving nature, after eating, or after touching a dog, he
has to bathe and twice repeat the Gayatri. If a Brahman drink of a
well polluted by ordure, he has to perform the Krichchhra and San-
tapana, for three days. A person vdio looks on or touches a crane, a
Bhiisa,§ a vulture, a rat, an ass, a Baka,|| a jackal, a sow, has to per-
form three A'chamauas [thrice to sip water and spurt it out.]. If a
Brahman eat of these animals he has to perform the Krichchhra,
Santapana, and the Prajapatya. Eating of the flesh of a dog or cock,
he has to perform the Chandrayana.^ If a Brahman speak when

* Fasting for a night and day, and taking the panchagavya, the five products of the cow,
milk, butter, curd, dung, and urine.

t Fasting for three days, eating once for three days, abstaining fron asking anything
for three days, and fasting for three days.

X Abstaining from water for twenty-one days.

§ Supposed to be a kind of water-bird.

|] Ardea Garzetta. Sykes.

^ Eating the first day of the moon one mouthful ; the second day, two ; the third day,
three ; and so on till the full moon, when the supply is to begin to be lessoned by a mouth-
ful daily till a new moon occurs. This is the Yavamadhya Chandrayana. In the Pipf-
likd, the reverse form of eatings practised.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

301

relieving nature or wlien eating, he should touch another Brahman.
[Such, it is here added, is also the dictum of Shankha and
Likhita.] If on any cotton matrass, or ornamented or red clotliing,
any defiling fluid fall, then let the article be purified by drying it and
sprinkling it with pure water.* If a Dvija touch a Washerman, a
Charmakiira (shoemaker.) a Nata (player), a Dhivara (fisherman), or a
Buruda (worker-in-bambus), he has to perform an A'chamana with
water. If any of these castes touch a Dvija when he is uchcliMshta,^
he has to remain for a night without eating, contenting himself with
drinking. If any Dvija eat of the leavings of the forementioncd
ca.stes, he has to fast for three days; and, if he be a Brahman, he has
to perform the Santapana, while the Kshatrij a has to perform three-
fourths of it, the Vaishya two-fourths of it, and the Shudra one-fourth.
If a Brahman go to the wife of a Shvapaka,f he has to bathe with all
his clothes, and take a draft of clarified butter. If he do this without
the desire of the woman, he has to bathe seven times ; and if he does
this with her desire, but without his own, he has to bathe ten or
eleven times. If any woman under a vow become impure (through
her courses) her vow is not destroyed, but to be implemented after
four days. If a Brahman touch the water of a Chandala, he has to
perform the Prajapatya and Krichchhra. [So also says Sumanta.]
If a Brahman eat the food of a Chandala or outcasted person, he has
to perform the Parilka§ penance ; and a Sluidra, tlie Krichchhra. If
any person go to the wife of an outcast or eat with lier, or accept any-
thing at her hands, he has to abstain for a mouth from grains, or
perform the Chandrayana penance. If the flesh of a dog, an elephant,
an ass, or a man fall into a well or tank, the whole water should be
taken out, and the well or tank cleaned. If any Brahman partake of
water in which a corpse has fallen, he must remain awake for a day
and night, and afterwards swallow the Panchagavya. Or he must
perform the Chandrayana or Tapta-krichchhra.[|

* Tins is to prevent injury and inconvenience by a regular washing as in ordinary
cloth, which is to be washed enthe.

t In the state of impurity, following eating without washing.

J Literally a “ dog-eater,” a designation applied to several of the low castes.

§ Fasting for twelve days.

II Drinking hot-w.ater, milk, and ghf for three days each.

3G2

WHAT CASTE IS.

There is no fault incurred by wearing what is blue at the time of
s))orting with women ; but there is at the time of Sandhya, (the
morning and evening ceremonies,) Snana (ablution), Japa (meditation),
Homa (burnt sacrifice), Svadhyaya (reading the Yedas), and
Pitritarpana (pouring out water to Ancestors,) and Yajna (sacrifice ),
which would be rendered useless by it. A Brahman dealing in
indigo becomes an apostate ; or he must perform three Krichchharas .
If a Brahman wear a blue dress, he should remain awahe for a niglit
and a day, and swallow the Panchagavya. If a Brahman pass
through a field of indigo, he has to do the same. If a Dvija eat of
grain raised in a field in which indigo had before been sown, he
has to perform the Chandrayana. Fields in which indigo has been
sown are purified after being kept fallow for twelve years. The
husband of a widow remains in hell while he wears cloth dyed with
indigo."^'

A woman performing any fast or vow (in her own behalf) while her
husband is alive shortens his life, and goes to hell after death. A
Avoman is impure to the fourth day after her illness ; and if she die in the
interval no Sanskara is to be performed for her till after this interval.

If a person be impure in a croAvd, his impurity does not attach to
others. The metal mixture Kasaf is purified by ashes. It is cleansed
from spirits by being washed and dried. The Kasa vessels from Avhich
Shiidi-as drink are purified by touching Avith them a cow. A vessel
touched by a dog, or a crow, is purified by an application of ten kinds
of salt. Golden and silver vessels are purified by the Avind and the
rays of the sun and moon. Vessels of Kasa are pure for the washing
ot hands and feet, and not for eating or drinking. Golden and silver
vessels Avhich may have been six months in the ground are purified
by Avater. Copper vessels are purified by acid substances. A woollen
cloth touching a corpse is not defiled.

If a man go between a husband and Avife, or betAveen fire and a
Brahman, or between a coav and a Brahman, he must fast for a day
and night.

* It is difficult to account for this hostility to indigo. Perhaps, the Brdhuians, Avho
had established white as their religious colour, were afraid of the introduction of new
fashions when their progress to the south of India brought them in contact AA’ith the
Aborigines using indigo.

t Bell-metal, or an amalgam of zinc and copper.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

363

No fruit occui-3 for ablution performed without the Darbha-
grass ; or for largesses given withoirt Avater ;* or for Japa
performed Avithout counting. The placing the half instead of the
Avhole of the foot upon an A'sana (sacred seat) and speaking Avhile
eating, ai’e faults equivalent to the eating of beef. If any man drink
water or eat food that has fallen on the ground, he has to perform the
Chandniyana. Dry rice is (fully) digested after seven nights ; and veget-
ables ate Avitli rice after fifteen nights. Milk and curds are digested after
a month ; clai-ified butter, after si.x months ; and oil, after a year. A
person taking the food of a Shiidra for a month remains a Shiidra,
and after death becomes a dog ( sic ! ). A person Avho becomes fat by
eating the food of a Shiidra has no future good issue. Issue begotten
after eating Shiidra’s food is of the Shiidra caste. A person Avho dies
Avith Shiidra food in his stomach becomes a village pig, or is reborn in a
Shudra’s family. A person who sacrifices after eating Avith. Shiidras
is forsaken by Pitris and Devas, and goes to the Raurava (dreadful)
hell.f The Avisdom of a Brahman looking to a Shiidra(Avith expectation)
becomes powerless. Food ought to be given on the ground to such
a Brahman, as to a dog. If a Shiidra make a NamaskaraJ to a
Bnihman, and a Brahman accept it, the Shiidra first goes to hell,
and then the Brahman. If an Agnihotri Brahman (a Brahman
maintaining the sacred fire) continue to eat the food of a Shiidra
his five acquisitions, — his soul, his Brahma, and three fires, — are
destroyed. A Brahman, according to A'pastamba, is not to eat
anything Avhich may have been in his hand Avhen he touched
a Shiidra. A Bi’ahman ought to eat the food of a Brahman daily,
that of a Kshatriya on the Parvas,§ and on occasion that of a Yaishya,
but ncAmr that of a Shiidra. The food of a Brahman is (to the
Brahman) like ambrosia ; that of a Kshatriya, like milk ; that of
a Vaishya, like food (properly so-called) ; and that of a Shiidra,

* The reference here is to the necessity of (Tipping presents in water, or applying
water to them, when giving them to Brdhmans. See before, p. 27.

t For an account of the Hindu hells and the sins said to lead to them, see Wilson's
Vishnu Purana, pp. 207-8.

t A form of salutation to be given only by the Dvijas and to one another.

§ “ Parva is a term for particular periods of the year, (as the equinoxes, solstices, etc.)
A name given to certain days in the lunar month, as the full and change of the moon, and
the 6th, 8th, and 10th of each half month.” — Molesworth’s Marathi Dictionary.

3G4

WHAT CASTE IS.

like blood. The Brahujan’s food is holiness ; the Kshatrij-a’s, like an
animal ; the Yaishya’s, like a Shiidra; and a Shiidra’s, like hell. The
sin of a man is acquired by the eating of his food ; he who eats his
food eats his sin. If a Brahman or Brahinachari eat or drink (without
bathing) in ignoi'ance of his impurity fi’om a birth [sutaka) which has
occurred, let him take the Panchagavya ; and fasting three days he
fv'ill be clean. A Brahman becomes pure in ten days after a birth in
liis own class, a Kshatriya in six days, a Vaishya in three days, and
a Shiidra in one day. The birth into which a Dvija will go after
eating of the food of a Shiidra, while he (the Dvija) is in a state of im-
purity from a death or birth is to me (Angiras) unknown. Manu says
he will be a vulture for twelve births ; or a pig for ten births ;
or a dog for seven births. No defilement from birth or death
occurs when the party concerned is practising the Homa, cele-
brating a marriage, or erecting a tabernacle for sacrifice. If a
fly or a liair be found in food at the time of eating, water is to
be applied to the eyes, and a little of (the sacred) ashes .sprinkled on
the food. If nature be relieved in a forest or place in which there is
no water, or where there is the fear of tigers or thieves, there is no
defilement from tlie disuse of water. It is sufficient ten times to touch
the ground. If a party become impure Avhile eating, he has to put
out his mouthful, and perform ablution. If he has swallowed his
mouthful, he will become pure by fasting a day or night ; but if he
has completed his meal he will become pure by fasting three nights.
If he has ate improper food while seated inhisPankti (line), he should
fast for a day and night, and afterwards swallow the Panchagavya.
Divisions in Panktis are caused by fire, ashes, pillars, doors, water,
•and roads. After sitting in one Pankti no one should touch that of
others. The Sparsha (defilement by touch) is not communicated to
those in one’s own Pankti, but it is communicated to those of others.
A Bniiiman is not freed from sin and impurity by repeating the
Vedas, but from knowing the meaning of the Smriti. If a man repent
of his sin and resolve not to repeat it, he becomes pure by that repent-
ance, and by reading the Vedangas. As fire consumes living trees,
so one skilled in the Vedas consumes his own sins. Sin does not
occur from confidence in God, but from ignorance and inadvertence,
on which account only it is consumable.,..

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

305

In tlie liouse of a king, in a cow’s fold, and in the presence of a God
or Brahman, and at the time of worship and eating, shoes ought to be
pulled off. A religious king ought to cut off both the feet of any
person who will sit with his Padukas (wooden-slippers) on his seat.
An Agnihotri, a Tapasvi, and a person learned in the Vedas may
always wear Padukas ; no other person ought so to do without punish-
ment. The Chandniyana penance ought to be performed by all who
eat in the house of a woman promised in marriage to one person and
given to another ; in the house of a woman who has become pregnant
before marriage ; and in the house of a woman who has become preg-
nant before she is ten years old ; and in the house of a woman who
has forsaken her husband and become an adulteress. Hell is the con-
sequence of eating in the house of a woman without offspring. They
Avho live on the property of a woman (^Stridliana) go to hell, lie who
takes away the food of a King, the food of a Shudra, or the glory of a
Bnihmau, or the food of a person labouring under the Siitaka, eats the
sin of the world. He who touches a female Chandala at night,
becomes pui’e by touching in the morning, the water bi'ought by day,
by bathing in it, and by drinking it. A Diisa, Napita (barber), Gopala
(cowherd), Kulamitra (common cultivator, literally a friend of the
family), and an Ardhasiri (a cultivator giving up half the produce),
may eat with a Shudra. If a Dvija eat with a Shudra he has to per-
form the Chandrayana. There is no atonement for a man who has
intercourse with a Yrishali (a woman who has her courses before her
marriage). He who touches from inadvertence an Ajapala, a Mahi-
.shya, a Vrishalipati, has to perform ablution of his person and dress
(sachcilasndna.) An Ajapdla is the husband of a barren woman. A
Mahihya is a man who forgives the adultery of his wife. A Vrishali-
pati is the husband of a girl who had her courses before being married.
Tlie father, mother, and elder brother who tolerate a girl in her courses
before marriage go to hell. A Brahman who will marry such a girl is
not to be spoken to or admitted into society. The ancestors who look
on a Mahishya in front ; on a Vrishalipati, in the middle ; and on a
usurer behind, go into despair. Ancestors, Gods, and Kish is go
into despair on seeing a person with spots on his body, a leper, a per-
son with injured nails, and a person with black teeth. The gods do
not eat in the house of a backbiter, a liar, or a man in subjection to

36G

WIIAT CASTE IS.

his wife ; or in the house* in which a paramour is found. The
ancestors eat the clarified birtter of the person whose nails and hair
are good, who does not wear red-clothing, and whose ears are larger
than two fingers. As long as the food is hot, and no conversation
takes place, the ancestors feed with tlie eaters. The qualities of the
clarified butter are not to be spoken of till the ancestors are satisfied.
Whatever mouthfuls at a Havyikavya (Shraddha)’^ are ate by the
Brahmans are ate by the ancestors. No Vrata (service in con-
sequence of a religious vow) avails till the Brahmans are satisfied
with gifts of food and gold. Purification from any impurity
thrown on the body by a crow or a crane is obtained by washing
the stain. By six nights’ drinking of the juice of the Lotus,
Udumbara, Bilva, Kusha, Ashvatha, and the Palasha,f the stain incur-
red by participating of articles forbidden to be eaten, drunken, or
tasted, and of blood, urine, and foeces, is removed. If this is not done,
let three Ivrichchhras, or three Chandniyanas, or the repetition of the
sacraments upwards from the J^takarma.| [Here follows a repetition
of a verse before occurring.] In doing penance let respect be had to
countiy, time, convenience, property, fitness, and condition. There is
no defilement from water or grass occurring on a road ; for they be-
come pure by the rays of the sun and the wind. An infirm person is
purified by the touch of a person making an ablution in his behalf.
[Here follows a statement of the methods to be adopted to obtain cere-
monial purification after touching a woman in her courses.]
Purity is obtained by ablution after touching a coiqjse, or hearing
of a birth or death. This virtue is in Avater, because the sun
sees it, because it is heated by fire, and because the constellations
observe it at night. Water is always holy, whether still or flowing,
whether in a Avell or reservoir, or river ; so says Vakpati (Brihas-
pati). Angira muni has said that water (if defiled) is purified by
Avaving a stick over it, or by casting a clod of earth into it, or applying
cow’s dung to it. Milk, dung, urine, curds, whey, and butter,
and the tail of a cow are ahvays holy. Everything has noAv been

* Oblations to the Manes of ancestors, performed by clarified butter and food.

t The Udumbara is the Ficus glomerata ; the Kusha, the Poa cynosuroides grass ; the
Bilva, the iEgle marmelos ; and the Faldsha, the Butea frondosa.

J See before, p. 61.

CASTE IN THE LAAV-BOOKS.

3()7

communicated to you, 0 intelligent one. If a cow is made to fall, a Kr ich-
charaliasto be performed ; if it full on a stone, two Kricbcharas ; if it fall
into a large well, half a Kriclicliara ; if into a ditch, a quarter of a
Krichchara. If it be struck by an instrument, three Kricbcharas have
to be perfornred by the killer ; if by a stick, two ; if by a clod of
earth, one ; or the Prajapatya. One has not to speak with a [strange]
woman or sing with her. One must not go at night into a cowpen or per-
form any Vedic ceremony. For cutting or twisting the tail (of a cow) , two-
fourths (of a Krichchhara) are prescribed ; for cutting off a foot, a
shaving with the exception of the Shikha (tuft) ; and for felling, the
shaving of the Shikha, are prescribed. The shaving of a woman,
to the extent of two handbreaths of her hair, is prescribed for a similar
olFence. Let a man who is purified and undefiled by touch walk (on
his way) without speaking. He who is touched by a person not
(ceremonially pure), becomes pure in three nights. If during the
Sutaka of a person mourning a death, he receive tidings of a birth, his
Siitaka closes after the tenth day ; but if his Sutaka is in the first
instance for a birth, and he afterwards hears of a death, the davs of
each Sutaka must be fulfilled [i.e. it must be completed in twenty days].
If a Sutaka is commenced for one birth and another be heard of, or if a
Sutaka be commenced for a death, and another be heard of, one Sd-
taka is sufficient, and no sin occurs from the arrangement. If a Su-
taka occur during a Vrata, let the Vrata be completed, and a dinner
given to the Brahmans. Whoever repeats this Shastra declared by
Angiras becomes free from all sin.*

Oil looking at the preceding list of the Smritis, it will
he observed, that most of the works noticed are exceed-
ingly brief. They appear to me to be made up, in some
instances, of the collected quotations ascribed to their
reputed authors, — who were principally Risliis of the Vedic
times, who had nothing whatever to do with tlieir com-
position,— and not to be distinctive works forming either
iiuhvidiial treatises or a Code of Laws, properly so-called.

The Smritis in most repute throughout India in general

* Angirasmriti, 1-1G5.

368

WHAT CASTE IS.

are tliose bearing tlie names of Manu, Yajnavallcija,
and Pardshara. The best coinmentarv on ]\Ianu is that
of the Karnafaki Brahman Kidluha Bhalta, usuallv
printed with the text ; and that on Yajnavalkva, that of
tlie Shaiva Dandi Vigndneshvari, called the Mildkshard.
The best digest of all the Smritis and of the intei’pretations
made of tliem is that entitled 3Iayukha, (the concen-
trated Rays of Light) a work of twelve (hvisions and •
thirty-six thousand Shlokas^ Avritteii by Nilkantha Bhatta
KdsJttkar, a Deshastha Brahman who flourished consi-
derably upwards of three centuries ago. The best digest
of the privileges and duties of the Shudras, forming the
great mass of the Indian community, as set forth in the
Law-Books, is that entitled the Shkdra Kamaldkar by
Kamaldkar Bhatta, also of Kashi, who was somewhat
posterior to the author now mentioned. Numerous otlier
digests of Hindu Law am in use in the different provinces
of India.* Of these \he Nirnaya Slndhu, treating more
of religious than secular matters, is often referred to in the
jMaralha Country.

The work bearing the name of Manu is sufficiently
well-known by the translation of Sir William Jones. The
original text of it has been repeatedly printed, and
sometimes with the commentary of Kulluka Bhatta. It
has the best claim of any Hindu Law-Book to the title of
a Code, though it is by no means a homogeneous or
self-consistent work. It commences by a professed
recital by Manu (the primitive Manu, the all-knowing
and all-powerful) to the assembled sages, of the doctrine

* Of these the largest list (founded however more on hearsay than
precise research) is to be found in Steele’s Report above referred to.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

369

of the evolution or formation ol the universe, and all its
inhahitants, animate and inanimate, according to the
specnlative system which it is intended to support. This Code
of Law s (Shastra), it tells us, Maim learned from the Deity
himself, and afterwards communicated to Marichi and the
other nine Prajapatis or Lords of Creation.* Mann, it
adds, requested Bhrigu to recite the Code, wdiicli is conse-
quently announced in his name. The claims for its great
antiquity, first proposed by Sir William Jones, in his Intro-
duction to his translation of it, have of late years been
abandoned by all orientalists ; and others of a more moder-
ate character are now urged in its behalf. There are
allusions in it not only to the three sacrificial Vedas, but
to the Atharva Veda ; to the Brahmanas ; to the Upani-
shads ; to the Vedangas ; and to the Sliruti, etc.f Professor
Lassen shows that at least portions of it are older than the
Buddhist Sutras, wdiich contain the name of the god Shiva, not
to be found in it. Parts of it, too, as the same author shows,
must have been written wdieii the ATvas knew but little of
the nations of the South of India, of w hich only the Odras
(of Orisa,) the Dravklas (of the south-east of the penin-
sula,) the Avantyas (of Ujjayanl.) and the Sdtvatas (of the
Satpuda range) are mentioned by it.J The collecting,
and probably the making, of some of the laws of the Code,
however, must have been a work of later times. Heretics
and their books are sometimes mentioned in it in such a
keen w ay as to make us believe that they had an organiza-

* Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulalia, Kratu, Prachetas, or Daksha,
Vashishtha, Bhrigu, and Narada. These names are principally those
of the Vedic poets, elevated to the rank of Prajapatis.

f ]\Ianu xh 33 ; iv. 100 ; etc. :j. Manu, Chap. x. 44, 21, 23.

370

WHAT CASTE IS.

tion hostile to tluit of the Brahmans, such as first appear-
ed among the Buddhists.* Female devotees, unknown to
Brahmanism, and said hj Kulluka, the commentator, to
belong to the “ Buddhist sect,” are alluded to."!' The
reference to the Chinas would lead us to infer that portions
of the work were made after the origination of the dynasty
of Tsin (B.C. 260), taking its name, however, per-
haps from an older trihe •, and to the Yavanas, that the
same portions were written subsequent to the advent of the
Greeks to the north of India.;|; The distinctions between
Mantras andBrahmanasand between Shruti and Smflii are
recognized by it.§ The Smritis of Atri, Shaunaka, and
Vasi.«htha, etc. are quoted by it.|| Reference is made in it to
Shudm kings (probably late authorities among the ATyas)
though only to condemn them.^ It takes notice of the
art of writing, and the recording of evidence on certain occa-
sions.** Dr. Max Muller thinks that it has received the
name of the Mdnava-dharmashdstra, from its being the
law-book of the Mdnavas, a subdivision of the sect of the
Taittiriyas.'t't The date of the oldest Smriti collections is
probably not to be extended beyond the second century
before Christ. It is evident, from many of their portions, that
they originated in a dark period of Indian history, as far as
Brahmanism is concerned.

* Manu, ii. 10-11 ; xi. 66. | ^lanu, viii. 363.

See passage quoted before, p. 60.

§ Manu, iv. 19 ; ii. 10-11 ; vi. 89.

II Manu, iii. 16 ; viii. 140. ^ Manu, iv. 61.

Manu, viii. 261. tt Hist, of Sans. Lit. p. 61.

For the opinion of Sir William Jones on the faults of Manu, see
before pp. 42-3.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

371

I have already drawn copiously on Mann for illustrations
of the Caste system in the first sections of this work, which
treat of the sphere and authority of caste ; of the orthodox
view of the four original castes ; and of the orthodox view
of the mixed castes. The following abstract of important
matters not already noticed, however, may be here advan-
tageously made : —

Manu, wlio speaks of tlie formation, as has been shown, of the
Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra from tlie liead, arms, thighs,
and feet of the godhead, according to the orthodox view of caste,*' does
not consistently adhere to this theory. He speaks of Bralima becoming
half male and half female, and as forming Yiriij in that female ; of Viraj
forming Manu ; of Manu forming the ten Prajapatis ; of the ten Prajapatis
forming seven other Manus and Devas, and Maharshis of boundless power,
and various other creatures, including apes, fishes, birds, beasts, deer,
and Men.\ Jlr. IMuir appropriately asks, “ If the castes had been
previously created by Brahma, what necessity existed for their being
formed at another stage of the ci-eation by the Maharshis, the third in
succession fi-om Brahma?” And he appropriately adds, “It would seem as
if the legend of the distinct creation of castes had been part of a separate
and perhaps later tradition, engrafted on the other account.”| But
this is not all. We have already seen the doctrine laid down in Manu,
that the Kshatriya was formed from particles of eight gods specified. §
Afterwards referring to the three gunas or qualities of Deity, according
to Hindu speculation, Bhrigu speaks of Shudras and Mle'chchhas (like
the ravenous animals) being of the middle quality of Tama, or darkness ;
of Chdranas, Suparnas, hypocrites, Rakshasas, and Pishachas being of
the highest conditions to which the Tama quality can extend ; of Jliallas,
Mallas, Natas, those who live by the use of weapons, and gamblers,
and drunkards, being of the lowest forms of the Tchnasi quality ; of
Bdjds, Ksliatriyas, and PuroMtas, and of men skilled in controversy,
being of the middle state of the Tdmasi quality ; of Gandharvas
Guhyakas, Yakshas, Vidyadharas, and Apsarasas being of the highest

* Manu, i. 3. See before, pp. 62-3.
X Muir’s Sanskrit Texts, 1. 16. '

t Manu i. 32. 39.

§ See before, p. 37.

372

WHAT CASTE IS.

of the quality of llaj, or passion ; of the practisers of tapa. Yatis, Vijiras,
the hosts of the (lower) heavens, the Xakshatras, and the Daitj-as, being
of the highest of the forms of the quality of truth, Satva; of sacrificers
Kishis, Deities, the Vedas, the fixed stars, the years, the Pitris (Manes
of ancestors), being of the middle forms of the quality of goodness ; and
of Brahma, the Creator of the universe, virtue, the Great One, the Un-
appai-ent One, being the highest forms of the quality of goodness.*
“ Plere,” as remarked by Mr. Muir, “ we see Kshatriyas and king’s
priests {imrohitas) who of course are Brahmans, in the same grade, while
other Brahmans of different sorts rank in two of the higher classes. The
highest class of Brahmans rank with the Ri.shis and the Vedas, while the
Vedas themselves are only in the second cla.ss of good (sdttvika ) exist-
ences, and lower than Brahma, their alleged author.” f

Of the spread of the A'ryas over India, first after their settlement oa
the banks of the Indus and its affluents, and secondly, after their
settlement between the rivers Sarasvati and Drishadvati, in what was
called Brahmdvartta, Manu gives us some interesting information.
“ As far as the eastern, and as far as the western oceans, between the
two mountains [Himavat and Vindhya just mentioned] lies the tract
which the wise men have denominated A'n/avartta [the abode of the
A'ryas].” Included in this general region was the region of the Brali-
marshi, comprehending Ivurukshetra, IMatsya, Panchala, and Slnira-
sena; while the country which lies between the Himavat and the
Vindhya, to the east of Vinashana, and to the west of Piayaga [the
junction of the Ganges and the Yamuna] was distinguished as the
Madhyddesha or middle country. All these regions, it will be ob-
served, were north of the Vindhya range. They formed, at the time
at which the portion of Manu in which they are mentioned was
written, the land of Brahmanism. “ From a Brahman [ograjanma)
born in that country (^A'ryavartta), let all men on earth learn their
several usages.” “ That land, on which the black antelope naturally
grazes, is held fit for the performances of sacrifices ; but the land of
Mlechchhas differs widely from it.” “ Let the three first classes in-
variably dwell in those before mentioned countries ; but a Shudra
distressed for subsist<^nce may sojourn wherever he chooses.”|

* Manu xii. 43-.50. t Muir’s Texts, i. p. 18.

J Manu ii 17 24.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

373.

Though the Hindus are aware of the extension of tlie privileged
country to the whole of India they still act in the spirit of these last quota-
tions, and generally oppose foreign travel. The river Atak (the name
of which etymologically means “ obstruction,” is the boundary of
journeying allowed by caste. A passer over the sea (.samudrayai)
is among the pai'ties “inadmissible into company at a repast,” and
to be avoided at Shraddhas.’’^'

The great scrupulosity of Caste in regard to certain kinds of food is
thus explained by Manu, on the principle of the metempsychosis.
“ These (animals and .^vegetables before mentioned) enshrouded in
multiform darkness, by reason of (past) actions, have internal con-
sciousness, and are sensible of pleasure and place. ”f

The teaching of the code of Manu is confined by him to Brahmans
(1. 103).

In accordance with statements already made, Manu declares that
“ the Veda, Smriti, pure usage (exemplified), and self-satisfaction are
the quadruple indications of Duty” (ii. 12). With this dictum all
the lawbooks agree.

The account of the SansTcdras, or SacramentsJ given by Manu
is briefer than that found elsewhere. Parties neglecting the Upanayana,
or investiture, are held to be Vrdtyas (members of the profanum vulgus)
who are degraded from the Gayatri, and with whom no connexion what-
ever is to be formed by any Brahman. The following caste dis-
tinctions are recognized : — “ The yajnopavita of the Brahman is to be
of cotton, to be put over his head in three strings ; that of a Kshatriya,
of flax ; and that of a Vaishya, of woollen thread.” (ii. 27-44:). The
ceremony of KesTidnta, or cutting off the hair, (in the sixtet^nth year
of a Brahman, in the twenty-second of a Kshatriya, and the twenty-
fourth of a Vaishya) prescribed by Manu (ii. 65), is not now attended to.

In connexion with Brahmanical discipleship, Manu uses very
strong language about the benefit of pronouncing the Gayatri and its
prefixes (the triliteral syllable AUM or combinedly OM, and the
vydhritisj.^ A thousand repetitions of the Gayatri by a Dvija “ re-
j leases him in a month fi om a great offence, as a snake from his slough.”
“ The Brahman, Kshatriya, or Vaishya, neglecting the Gayatri meets

* Mann iii. 1G7. -f Mann, i. 49.

J A list of the San.skflras is given above, pp. OO-Gl. § See before, p. 14C.

374

WHAT CASTE IS.

with contempt from tho virtuous.” It is the “ mouth (or principal part)
of the Veda.” Whoever practises the daily repetition of it for three
years “ approaches Brahma, moves as freely as air, and assumes an
aerial form.” All rites pass away, but it remains. “ By the sole repeti-
tion of the Gayatri, a Brahman may indubitably obtain beatitude, let
him perform, or not perform any other religious act. ” (ii. 7G-87.)

[Here is the wonderful Mantra deriving its name from the measure
(in three lines) of the Siikta of the Veda from which it is taken : —

aff iHTf :

jTiff l-q-^^rqTJirr
rSr^r ifr ||

Om ! bJiur hhuvah svdh !

Tat savitni- varenyam, bhargo devasrja dh'mahi ;
dhiyo yo nah 2Jrachodaydt.'"

— Om ! Earth ! Sky ! Pleaven ! — We contemplate that praiseworthy
Sun {Savit^d), of divine lustre ; may he direct ourintellects !]

This Gayatri, it is afterwards enjoined, must be repeated several times
at dawn and dusk (which form with the noon the three daily times of
Sandhya with the Hindus), on the penalty of the Dvija being excluded,
like a Shiidra, from the sacred observances of the twice- born (ii. 101-3).

The Brahman disciple must acquire his knowledge of the Veda from
his preceptor, lest he should prove a thief and sink to the region of
torment (ii. II 6), yet in times of difficulty he may learn the Veda from
other sources (ii. 241). Neglect of the prescribed form of returning a
salutation deprives him, like a Shiidra, of the right of salutation (ii.l26)-
Wealth, kindred, age, conduct, and learning entitle men to respect-
'' The seniority of Vipras,” however, “ is from knowledge ; of Kshatriyas^
from valour ; of Vaishyas, from wealth and grain ; and of Shiidras
from (the priority of) birth” (ii. 136, 157). A Brahman neglecting
the study of the Vedas becomes, with his descendants, like a Shudra
(ii. 168). He is not allowed to pronounce sacred texts, till his new birth
occurs, before which he is on a level with a Shudra (173). A Brdliman
student, but not a .ffo/anya or a Fafs/iya, must be a mendicant (190).

■*Kig-Veda, iii. 40, in which, however, the words Om bhui' hhuvoh svah iiO wi occur.
The selection of the Gayatri for distinction as a Mantra seems to have originated in
the prevalence of solar worship among the ancient Indiana.

CASTE m THE LAW-BOOKS.

375

Wlien treating of the married state Mauu thus ordains : — “ Only a
ShiUlra woman ought to be the wife of a Shudra ; she and a Vaishja, of
a Vaishja; they two and a Kshatriya, of a Kshatriya; tho.se two and a
S) (ihiTKxnij of a J^vuIitucui, (iii. 13.) i\larriages, however^ must now
be confined to parties belonging to each caste respectively.* Manu
mentions also the eight kinds of Indian marriages allowed in his dayf
(iii. 21, 41). The minute and strange rules for the intercourse of
married per.sons (iii. 45, 50) I pa.ss over.

In dome.stic management there are five places of extinguishment of
life, — the hesirth, the millstone, the broom, the pestle and mortar, and
the water-jar ; but penance for the stain thus occasioned is performed
by the five great sacrifices reading the Veda ; offering cakes and
water to the manes of ancestors ; offering oblation to fire in behalf of the
deities ; giving food to animals ; sacrificing for departed spirits (hlnctas),
and practising ho.spitality for men. (iii. 68-90.) A Brahman may
be a guest m the house of a Brahman, but not a Kshatriya, un-
less he eat after the Brahmans (100, 110, 111).

The following p.arties, among others, are to be avoided by Brahman
householders in connexion with their daily rites : — Brahmans guilty
of theft, atheists, gamblers, those who perform many sacrifices for the
vulgar, physicians, De'valaka (dressers of images), and flesh-sellers.
The following parties must all be shunned : — a messenger, a person with
bad nails or blackish teeth, an oppo.ser of his preceptor, a phthisical
man, a feeder of cattle, a younger brother married before the elder
an elder brother not married before the younger, a dependant on the
wealth of relatives, a dancer, an Avalcirm (a person of the first or fourth
A'shrama who has violated chastity,) a Vnshal(pati,X son of a
twice-married woman, a man blind of an eye, one in whose house an
adulterer dwells, a teacher of the Vedas for hire, one who has given
hire to such a teacher, the pupil of a Shudra and a Shudra preceptor,
a rude speaker, and a lumda-golaka (the son of an adulteress either
Ijefore or after the death of the adulteress), one who eats with a
Kunda, a seller of the Soma-plant, a traveller by the ocean, a Band'i,

* See Mitiiksharii, i. 3. (p. 7 of Cal. ed.) f See before, p. 2.39.

* See before, p. S65. But Kulliika Bhatta makes the Vrishali'pati an individual (of
the Dvija) who instead of marrying in his own caste marries a Shudra.

376

WHAT CASTE IS,

an oilman, a drinker of spirits, a seller of liquid, a maker of bows and
arrows, a father instructed in the Yeda by his son, a leper, etc. The
following parties must be shunned with greatcare — tamers and keepers
of animals, a Brahman living as a Shiidra, a sacrificer to the Ganas,
one who does not practise dckdra, the. husband of a twice-married
woman, and the remover of dead bodies, (iii. I0O-I66.) The alleged
penalties for neglecting these injunctions are, in some instances, of an
alarming character. “ Food given to the seller of the moon-plant
becomes ordure in another world ; to a physician, pus ; to a Devalaka
(dresser of images), offal ; to a usurer, infamous” (181).

Minute information and directions about the Shraddhas to the
manes of ancestors and to deities follow. The most favourable place
for a Shraddha is some unfrequented place. If there be no consecrated
fire into which some of the oblations may be dropped, they may be
dropped into the hands of a Brahman, who is the equivalent of fire
(212). The Brahman must be very careful about his manner of
eating. What he eats with his head enveloped, with his face to the
south (the habitat of the Rakshasas), with his sandals on his feet, the
demons assuredly devour. He should not be seen eating by a
Chandiila, a pig, a cock, a dog, a woman in her courses, or a eunuch.
The fool who gives the residuum of the Shraddha to a Shiidra falls
into the hell Kdlasutra. The superfluous ^rf«cZas, or lumps,* may be
given to a cow, to a Brahman, to a kid, or to fire. Not only are the minis-
trant Brahmans satisfied, but the manes themselves. They are .satis-
fied, according to the code, for a month by the common grains and pot-
vegetables ; for two months, with fish ; for three months, with the flesh
of the antelope ; for four, with mutton ; for five, with eatable birds ; for
six, with the flesh of the kid; for seven, with that of the spotted deer ;
for eight, with that of the black-antelope ; for nine, with that of the
ruru (nilgai ?) ; for ten, with that of the boar and buffalo ; for eleven,
with that of hares and turtles ; for a year, with cow’s milk and the food
cooked of it ; for twelve years, with that of the long-eared white goat ;
for ever with the Icdlashdka (the enduring vegetable), with the flesh
of a rhinoceros, and of the iron-coloured kid, with honey, and with,
foreign grains eaten by hermits, (iii. 238, 23fl, 249, 260, 267, 271).

♦ Often rendered funeral cakes.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

377

Animal food, however, is now generally abstained from at Shrdddhas,
according to the following smriti : — ■

HiTRR: II

“ I’he Agnihotra, the slaughter of cows, Sannyasa, (the nse of) flesh at
the feast for the Pitris, the raising of offspring by the brother of (a
deceased) husband, are five things forbidden in the Kali (Yuga)”. Of
these the Agnihotra and Sanyasa, however, are still in practice, having
been said to have been restored by Shankara A'charya.

When treating of the means of subsistence for the Brahman house-
holder, Manu, as we have seen, allows him to live by truth or falsehood,
but not by hired service.f A Brahman, wben hungry, may beg from
a king, the institutor of a sacrifice, or his own pupil, but from no
person else. He has ever to pay respect to objects esteemed sacred.
He must not step over a string to which a calf is tied, nor run when
rain [the gift of ludra] falls, nor look on his own image in water. lie
must pass a ?nrjdaa(7a (a kind of drum,) | an object of worship, a
Briihman, clarified butter, honey, a place where foixr paths meet, or
large trees, with his right hand towards them. Particular rules, stated
with disgusting particularity (and much dwelt on in the principal
law-])ooks) he has to observe when relieving nature. He must not
dwell in a city governed by a Shiidra king, nor in one abounding with
persons of Jow-caste. He must not stand with Chandalas, Pukka-
sas, or Antyavasayins, or give spiritual advice or read the Vedas
to Shudras. He is never to despise a Kshatriya, a serpent, or a
Brahman. He has to wear no marks wdiich do not belong to him.
He is forbidden to eat polluted food, and that offered to him by
persons of other castes, the legislation of Manu on these matters
Ireing similar to that of Angiras already noticed. A cultivator, a
herdsman, a Dasa, a barber, etc. may, however, eat the food of their
superiors, (iv. 33, 39, 79, 99, 130, 135, 210, 253.)

It is not necessary to repeat what is said by Manu on the diet of
Brdhmans§. In addition to former notices, this may be given : — The

» Laugdkshi, quoted in the Nirnaya Sindhu, iii. 1. f See before, p. 21.

+ Sir \\illiain Jones translates this, a mound of earth, § See before, pp, 32-3.

378

WHAT CASTE IS.

man who performs annually, for a hundred years, an ashvam^dha, (or
horse-saci ifice.) and the man who abstains from flesh-meat have equal
merit (v. 53).

The institutes ofManu on the subject of purification are similar to
those of Angiras, though somewhat more extended. Those referi ing
to purification for the dead occupy a chief place in the code. When
a child is born, or when he dies in maturity, all his kindred are
impure. By a dead body the Sapitidas (the seven orders of descent in
the kin, entitled to eat the pinda or lump together) are impure for ten
days, or for three days, when the bones have been gathered up (before
the knowledge of the death has been acquired), or for one day only
in the case of distinguished Brdhmans. Samdnodal-as, those entitled to
make the oblation of water together, and embracing all knowm relatives
not included in the Sapfndas, become pure by simple ablution.
Matters are the same in the case of births, for those who seek absolute
purity. In practice, however, a mother is unclean for ten days after
a birth, while a father becomes pure by bathing ; Sapindas become pure
in ten days after touching a corpse ; Samdnodakas, in three. The
pupil of a Brahman preceptor becomes pure in ten nights, after
attending the preceptor’s funeral. For the death of a vender of the
whole Veda, a man dwelling in the same house with him is impure
for three nights. A subject is impure for a day or night on the death
of a king. In the cases in which a Brahman becomes pure in ten
days, a Kshatriya is purified in twelve, a Vaishya, in fifteen, and a
Shudra, in a month. He who touches a Pivdkirti (one likea Chandala), a
fallen one, a woman in her course.s, a new-born child, a corpse, or
one who has touched a corpse, is purified by bathing. A BiAhman
touching a human bone moist with oil is purified by bathing ; touch-
ing a bone not oily, by touching a cow, or looking at the sun, after
performing an dchamana. There is to be no giving of funeral water
for Vratyas and those who belong to the mixed castes, for female
devotees, etc. A king on the tin-one is alwaj's pure. So is a Kshatriya
dying in battle, (v. 58, 59, Gl, G5, 81,83, 85, 87, 89, 94, 98.)

As to the purification of inanimate objects, Manu agrees with An-
giras, enumerating, however, more instances of defilement. He gives
the ibllowing mitigations, however, of the bondage in which the doc-

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

37P

trine of Shaucha and Ashancha places tbe Indian community. To Brdli-
mans, are pure Avhat has been defiled without their knowledge, what in
cases of doubt they sprinkle with water, and what they coininetid
with their speech. Wateis are not defiled by cows quenching their
thiist in them. The hand of an artist, the liiod got in begging by a
Brahmachari, the month of a woman, fruit pecked by a biid, an
animal sucking, a dog in catching deer, animal.s killed by hunters, all the
cavities above the navel, flies, the drops from the mouth of a speaker,
the shadow of an object, a cow, a horse, the sun-beam, dust, eartii, air,
and fire, are all pure even when touching and touched, (v. ^ 127-133.)

To remove natui-al impurities various ceremonies are resorted to.
(v. 134-139.)

Shudras regardful of religion have to shave once a month, to observe
the laws ofpurity like Vai.shyas, and to eat the orts of the Dvijas.' (140.)

The laws respecting women found in Manu, I here pass over, with the
intention of onwards referring to them.

The Vdnaprastha and the Sanvydsi are to be as observant of purity
as the householder. To the latter the following injunction is address-
ed.— “ Let 1 lim advance his foot purified by looking (at what is before
him) ; let him drink water purified by cloth ; let him utter pure truth ;
let him keep his heart pure.” (vi. 46.) Here the ceremonial and
moral are combined. His dishes must have no fracture, nor be made
of bright metal. Their purification must be, only with water, as in the
case of sacrificial vessels. A gourd, a wmodeu bowl, an earthen dish,
and a basket made of banibu, are the vessels proper for the reception
of his food. As a penance for his unknowingly killing animals, he has
to make si.v prdndydmas (suppressions of breath) daily. (53, 51, 69.)
Notwithstanding the commendation given to ascetics, the ashrama of
the householder, who observes the Veda and the Smriti, and supports
the other orders, is the chief. (89.)

Much of the legislation lecorded in Manu regarding the Kshatriya,
or ruler, is more of a civil than a religious character, though this
distinction, properly speaking, is not admitted in the Hindu writers.
Ca.ste partialities are not wanting in the prescription of the duties
of a king, as has been already shown in a foimerj)art of this woi k.*
In his administration of law, he has to regard not only what is
* See before, pp. 37-44.

380

. WHAT CASTE IS.

alleged to have been revealed, but the peculiar customs of countries,
tribes, castes, etc. (viii. 46.) Kegard is to be had by him to tlie
dignity of the several castes in the administration of oaths. He has to
examine Brahmans, however, who act as herdsmen, traders, artizans,
dancers, singers, and hired servants, as if they Avere Shiidras (viii. 102).
A Brahman, he has to swear by his veracity ; a Kshatriya, by his
conveyance and Aveapons; a Vaishya by his cows, grain, and gold; and
a Shiidra by the imprecation of all kinds of sins. (113.) The three
loAver classes he may fine, as well as banish for falsehood, but
Brahmans he must simply banish. (123.) The awful severity of
punishments prescribed for parties insulting Brahmans has already been
noticed. '•' For theft (the meanness of Avhich seems to have been promi-
nently in the vieAV of the Hindu legislators) a Brahman is to be more
severely punished by fine than others. The fine of a Shiidra in this
case is eight-fold; of a Vaishya, sixteen-fold; of a Kshatriya, thirty-
two-fold ; and of a Brahman, sixty-four-fold, or even more.f (338.)
Touching a married Avoman on (the breasts) or any place Avhieh
ought not to be touched, and enduring complacently the improper
touch of a Avoman, are to be A'iewed as a species of adultery. (359.)
Women guilty of adultery are to be m6st severely puni.shed. A
Avoman polluting a damsel is to get her head shaved, tivo fingers chopped
off, and to be paraded on an ass. An unfaithful wife of high family
is to be devoured by dogs, Avhile her paramour is to be burned to death
on an iron bed Ave 11 heated. (371-2.) Committing adultery Avith a guard-
ed Brahmani, a Shiidra has to suffer death ; a Vaishya, has to lose his
Avealth ; and a Kshatriya has to be fined a thousand pranas and shaved Avith
the urine of an ass. (374-375.) A Vaishya committing adultery AA'ith
an unguarded Brahmani is to be fined five hundred, and a Kshatriya,
a thousand (parias) ; but committing this crime with a guarded Brah-
mani, they should be punished as Shiidras, or be burned in a fire of dry
grass or reeds. (376-7.) Yet ignominious tonsure is the only punish-
ments for Brahmans in a case of this kind, Avhose death in punishment
a king must not even imagine. | More of this partial legislation in
the case of adultery is found in the context. (381-5.)

* See before, p. 22.

t A Brahman, however, may take the property of his Shiidra. See pp. 21, 23.

J See before, p. 22.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

381

E.'cetnption from taxes is granted to persons conferring great benefits^
and to Brabuians of eminent learning, as in the case of tlie blind, idiotic,
lame, and aged. (394.)

The supremacy of the king in all market charges, prices, measure-
ments, and tolls is distinctly laid down. Brahman students, and
religious mendicants, and some other classes of the community are
exempt from toll. (398-409.)

The king has to order the Vaishya to practise trade, or money-
lending, or agriculture, or attendance on cattle ; and to cause the
Shudra to serve the twice-born. (410.)

A wealthy Brahman may contribute to the support of a Kshatriya
and Vaishya, assigning them their respective duties. His power over
a Shudra in the matter of service is unlimited. (413-414, 417.)

The ninth chapter of Manu treats in the first instance of Females,
whose position in caste and religion we shall afterwards liave occasion
to notice. It then passes on to the matter of Inheritance, which is
connected more with general jurisprudence than with caste, to which,
however, some of its injunctions directly refer.

If there be four wives of a Brahman in the direct order of the
classes, and sons are produced by them all, this is the Smriti of parti-
tion : the chief servant in agriculture, the bull of the herd, the riding
liorse or carriage, the (family) ornaments, and the principal messuage
shall be deducted from the inheritance, and given to the Brahman son
together with a large share by way of pre-eminence. Let the Brahman
have three shares of the residue ; the son of the Kshatriya wife, two
shares ; the son of the Vaishya wife, a share and a half ; and the son
of the Shudra wife, one share, (ix. 149-lol.) An alternative ar-
rangement, however, is also sanctioned. (152-loG.) This legislation
from the progress of time, and the change of usage, is now obsolete in
the Hindu community. The marriage of the Dvija of any of three Varnas
to any female not of his own caste is forbidden in the Kali Yuga.*

For a Shudra is ordained a wife of his own class, and no otlier : all
produced by her shall have equal shares, though she have a hundred
sons. (lo7.) A son begotten through lust by a Brahman on a Shiidi a

* See quotation from the Brihan Naradfya, in the Nirnaya Sindhu, chap. 3, near the
end.

382

WHAT CASTE IS.

is like a corpse though alive, and thence called in law a living corpse,
or pdrashava. (178.)

The property of a Brahman dying without heirs near of kin or distant
relatives ( sapindas or samdnodakas) is to be given to Bi ahnians who have
recited the three Vedas, and who are of purity and subdued passion, and
whohave to present water and the funeral cake to the father, grandfatlier,
and great-grandfather whom they thus represent. The property of a
Brahman (contrary to the rule in other castes) is never to be made an
escheat by the king. (186-189.)

Eunuchs aTid outcastes, persons born blind or deaf, madmen, idiots,
the dumb and such as have lost the use of a limb, are excluded fj om
a share of the heritage, though entitled to food and raiment. (201-2.)^

Tliose who neglect the duties of their caste, are with public
dancers, singers, heretics, etc. to be banished by the prince. (225.)

A Kshatriya, Vaishj’a, or Shiidra may discharge his debt by
labour.f A Brahman is to discharge it by degrees. (229.)

The slayer of a Brahman, a drinker of ardent spirits, the stealer of
the gold of aB'ahman, and the violator of the bed of his fiither
(natural or official) are criminals in the highest degree. (235.) Such
parties who may not have performed an e.xpiation are to be branded
in a particular way, and to be treated as outcastes. With none, to eat
with tliem, wuth none to sacrifice with them, with none to be allied
by marriage to them, abject and excluded from all social duties, let
them wander over this earth : branded with marks they shall be de-
serted by their paternal and maternal relations, treated by none
with affection, received tjy none wdth respect. (238-9.) TheBiahmau
guilty of any of these crimes is to be banished ; while the offen<ler
of other classes, even though the offence may have been unpremedi-
tated, shall be corporally or even capitally punished.

* With this agrees the doctrine of Yajnavalkya and of the otherauthors of the Smritis.
Mitakshard. ii. 10-1, etc.

t Karmma. In 1835, I witnessed, at Dvarakd, a curious application of this princ’ple,
under the adn.inistration of the agents of H. H. the Gdikawdd. A Hindu tailor, who had
attached himselt for the sake of companionship to my servants on the road to that wild
part of India, took a rfors/mn (leligious view) ot the god Ranchod withi ut paying the
established fee ot nine rupees. He was apprehended in consequence, and condemned to ply
the needle ffr a month and a half, (conveniently) to the repair of the clothing of all the
officials concerned.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

383

A virtuous king must not appropriate the wealth of a Mahipataka,
a sinner in the higliest degree. He ought to throw the fine inflicted
(on such a person) into tlie waters as an offering to Varuna, or give
it to a learned Brahman. (243-4.)

A person of low caste (avaravarna) giving pain to Brahmans should
receive a teirific punishment from the prince. (248.) Hoirible punish-
ments, indeed, are ordered to be inflicted on other classes of offenders.
Special hate is manifest to the goldsmith, who is ordered to be cut to
pieces with razors when guilty of fraud. (276-292.)

The king is cautioned against incensing Biahmans, who could des-
troy him with his troops, elephants, horses, and cars. (313.)'^

On Vaishyas and Shudras is enjoined the discharge of the duties
specially assigned to them.l

Tlie tenth chapter of Manu treats principally of the Mixed Ca.stes.
I have already extracted its substance. ij; Some caste arrangements are
intimated in connexion with the alleged genesis of the different castes
and the occupations assigned to them.

The Chandala and Shvapaka must live exterior to towns, be denied the
use of entire vessels, and have as their sole wealth dogs and asses.
Their clothes must be those of the dead, their dishes broken pots, their
ornaments rusty iron. Continually must they wander from place to
place. Other classes must have no intercourse with them. They
must not walk by night in cities and towns. They must carry the
corpses of those who die without friends. Their duty is to slay criminals
under the king’s warrant, and their privilege is to receive their clothes,
beds, and ornaments. (51-G.)

The offspring of a Brahman from a Shudra woman shall l>e rai.sed to
the class of the father in the seventh generation. The same is the law
as to the offspring of a Kshatriya and of a Vaishya by a Shudra woman.
(64-5.) But these dicta are now obsolete, as the wives of the Dvija
must niw be of tlndrown class. § They are worthy of notice, however,
as indicating corruption in the Biahmanical blood in ancient times.
It is curious to mark in connexion with them, the following extra-
ordinary law : — “ Ashy virtue of the father’s issue the descendants of

* See in connexion with this the quotations, made at p. 24, above.

•f See before, p. p. 44-50. J Bee before pp. 53-60, § See before p. 377.

384

WHAT CASTE IS.

animals have become reverend and celebrated Risliis (exemplified says
Kulluka Bhatta in Rishishringa, in the liamayana), so (it isseen) that
the paternal side prevails. (72.)

In noticing the occupations in which the Dvijas may engage when
straitened for subsistence, there is a great discouragement of agricul-
ture, destructive of animal life ; of the sale of liquids, dressed grain,
tila seeds (unless for sacred purposes), atones, salt, cattle, men, women,
cloth dyed red, cloth made of Sana, Kshuma-bark, wool (even though
not red) ; of fruit, roots, drugs, water, arms, poison, flesh-meat ; of the
Soma, milk, honey, clarified butter, oil (of tila), sugar, and the Kusha
grass ; of forest beasts ; of ravenous beasts, spirits, indigo, lakshd (lac),
and beasts with uncloven hoofs. “ By selling flesh, laksha, or salt, a
Brahman instantly becomes an apostate ; by selling milk for three days,
he becomes a Slnidra.” (86-92.) The sale of some of these articles
is interdicted because of their supposed sacredness, because of the loss
of animal life in their production, or because of their alleged impurity
or liability to ceremonial defilement.

The advantage of each caste seeking to discharge its( own duties is
illustrated by the following statute and maxim : —

rfiFTT R- qrrw
ff ^i?r: Tqffl 5irrliFr:il

“ One’s own imposed duty though rvorthless is paramount, — not that
of another party, though w'ell instituted ; the person living by a strange
course-of-duty falls instantly from Caste.” (97.)"' The Brahman in
distress, however, may receive gifts from any quarter (atonements
being at hand). To save life forbidden food may be taken, as
illustrated in the alleged cases of Aji'garta, Vamadeva, Bharadvaja,
and Vishvamitra often referred to in the Hindu literature. f (102-8.)

• This is somewhat like what we find in the Bhagavad-Gfta (iii. 35) :

ftJJ'T: 'Tr-TflTfT

“ One’s own religion, though worthless, is better than a strange religion, however
well instituted , death in one’s own rehgion is good ; that (the religion) of another
beareth fear."’

t See above pp. 150, et seq.

CASTE IX THE LAIV-BOOKS.

385

A Ksbatriya may take the fourth part (of a crop or income) in time
of distress. (118.)

Attendance on Brahmans is the best work of a Shiidra ; whatever
else he may perform will be fruitless to him. (123.)

“ There is no guilt in a Shudra (who eats garlic and other forbidden
articles). He is not fit for the Sanskara (of initiation). He has
neither the right of practising Z)Aarma (duty), nor is any restraint
placed on him in regard to Dharma.”^ (126.) Moral duties,
however, are obligatory upon him.

The eleventh chapter of Manu is devoted principally to penance
and expiation. It begins, however, with certain laws as to largesses.
Alms are to be given to Brahmans seeking to marry, to sacrifice,
to travel ; to those who have e.xpended their wealth on sacred rites,
and who desire to maintain their guru, father, or mother ; to those who
are Brahmacharis, and those who are afilicted with disease. These nine
classes of Brahmans are Sndtakas (purified-ones). Jewels of all sorts
are to be given to Brahmans knowing the Vedas. What is necessary
to complete a sacrifice may be taken from any person, even from a
Shudra if a Vaishya (or other Dvija) be not near, since the Shudra
has no business with sacrifice. A Brahman, without being held guilty
of theft, may take a day’s food from the party who for three days has
failed to supply his wants. A Kshatriya must never seize the wealth
of a Br^iman. He gains from the Brahman whom he protects a
sixth part of his righteousness. A Brahman begging from a Shudra
becomes in the next birth a Chandala. IMisappropriating what he
has begged for a sacrifice, he becomes a Chasa, or a crow, for a hundred
years. The person who robs the Brahmans feeds on the orts of vul-
tures in the other world for a hundred years. A Brahman skilled in
the law may chastise those who injure him without appealing to the
king. He may use the Shruti of Atharvan (the Atharva Veda) reveal-
ed to Angiras, for speech is the weapon of a Brahman to destroy his
enemy, as arms in the case of a Kshatriya, and wealth in the case of a
Vaishya and Shudra. (xi. 1-31.)

Neither a girl, nor a young woman, nor a man of little learning,
nor a dunce, nor a diseased person, nor the uninitiated, is permitted

* This verse, which I have partially supplemented according to Kulluka Bbatta, has
eiven much trouble to modem commentators.

386

WHAT CASTE IS.

to sacrifice. Only one who has read all the Vedas must officiate at an
oblation to fire. (57-8.)

No man must sacrifice without bestowing liberal gifts. (40.) A
priest who keeps an agnihotra, and neglects his fire, must perform the
chdndrayana for one month, his neglect being equal, to the slaughter
of a son. (41.)

Proceeding to enter more formally on the doctrine of penance,
IManu repeats the following noticeable dicta : — “ The wise say penance
(is effectual) for involuntary sin ; and others say that it is available,
from the evidence of the Shruti, even for a voluntary offence. A
sin involuntarily committed is purged by Vedic repetition ; but an
offence committed intentionally, through infatuation, by various
special penances.” (45-6.) For certain offences deliberately com-
mitted, thei'e is now no available penance.

Morbid changes in the body are said to occur for sins committed in
the present birth, or in those by which it has been preceded. To escape
these, penances ought to be resorted to. (48-54.)

Some sins are thus classified ; —

I. Mahdpntakas (Great Sins).

Brahmacide, Sm';ipana (drinking of .spirits), theft (of a Brahman’s
gold), adi Itery with the wife of a guru, and associating with parties
guilty of these crimes.

IT. Patakas (Sins) : —

1. — False pretension (as to caste), bringing a false charge before a
king, falsely accusing a guru, — which are nearly equal to killing a
Brahman.

2. Forgetting the Brahma (the Veda), showing contempt for the
Veda, giving false evidence, killing a friend^ eating Avhat is forbidden,
or what is unfit to be tasted,* which six (faults) are like spirit-drinking.

3. Appropriating a deposit, and stealing a man, ahorse, silver, a field,
a diamond, or any other gem, are nearly equal to stealing (the gold of a
Brahman).

4. Carnal dealing with sisters of the same womb, with a little
girl, with women of the low castes, or with the wife of a friend or son,
— which are said to be nearly equal to the violation of the bed of a guru.

* ijff fff

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

387

III. UpapdtaJcas, (Sins of a lower degree) : —

Cow-killing, sacrificing for outcastes (j>atitdh), adultery, selling
oneself ; deserting a mother, a father, a guru, tho reading of the
Veda, the (sacred) fire, or a son ; the marriage of a younger
brother before the elder, or the omission of the elder to marry
before the younger; giving a daughter to either of them, or per-
forming their nuptial sacrifice; defiling a damsel, usury, breaking
one’s vow (of chastity as a student) ; selling a tank, a garden, a
wife, or a child; becoming a Vratya (by neglect of initiatory rites);
abandoning a kinsman, teaching the Veda for hire, learning it from
a hireling, selling articles not to be sold, having property in mines>
putting large machines to work, destroying medicinal plants, living by
(the harlotry of) a wife, preparing charms to destroy, cutting down
green trees for fuel, performing rites for self-interest, eating pro-
hibited food (once without a previous design), neglecting the (sacred)
fire, theft, non-payment of debts, having dealings with untrue Shas-
tras,* excessive attention to music or dancing, stealing grain, the base,
inebils, or cattle, intercourse with a drunk woman ; killing a woman, a
Shudra, a Vaishya, or a Kshatriya, atheism.

IV. The Caste destroying sins (in addition to the preceding, to
which they are inferior) ; —

Giving pain to a Brahman, smelling spirituous liquor or anything
unfit to be smelt, cheating, unnatural practices with a male.

V. Sins reducing a person to a mixed caste : —

Killing an ass, a horse, a camel, an antelope, an elephant, a goat, a
sheep, a fish, a snake, or a buffalo.

VI. Sins excluding from social repasts : —

, Accepting presents from blameable persons, engaging as a merchant
(in the case of a Brahman), serving a Shiidra-master, and speak-
ing unturth.

VII. Sins causing defilement (mala) : —

Killing an insect, a bird, or a worm ; eating what has been carried
with liquor ; stealing fruit, wood, or flowers ; and discomposure of
mind. (55-70.)

This classification of sins and offences, it will be noticed, is made
altogether on the principles of Caste, which are most remarkable for

. The reference is probably to Buddhist works.

388

WHAT CASTE IS,

their partiality. Killing a Brahman and stealing his gold are of com-se
the greatest olFences which can be committed. In a similar category
is placed the drinking of spirits by a Brahman, The reason is stated
onwards, “ A drunk Brahman may fall on something impure, or
may when intoxicated make a Vedic utterance, or perform some
unlawful act,” (97.) Eating things prohibited is more heinous than
incest and unnatural crime, or killing a woman, a Shudra, a Vaishya
or a Kshatriya. Even giving pain to a Brahman causes a loss of caste.

The penances for the offences committed, so far as they are avail-
able, are regulated on the same caste principles. A Brahman killing
a Brahman (inadvertently) may dwell in a forest for a dozen of years,
feeding on alms, and contemplating the skull of the slain. A Ksha-
triya doing this, has to make himself a mark to archers or cast himself
thrice headlong into blazing fire. A king, doing it, has to perform
(with great presents) one of the six great sacrifices. Alternatives are
also allowed, among which is the suiTender, in the case of the rich, of
property to a Brahman learned in the Vedas; or walking to the source
of the river Sarasvati. The preservation of a cow or Brahman atones
for brahmacide. The stealer of the gold of a Brahman has (either to
the destruction of his life or otherwise) to be struck by a king with
an iron mace ; but if the offender be a Brahman he can get off by the
performance of tjpa. Caste lost by the offences above specified vo-
luntarily committed is recovered by the sdntapana, and involuntarily,
by the For exclusion from society the cJidndr&yana is

available. For killing a Kshatriya the penance asked is only the
fovu'th part of that required for killing a Brahman ; for killing a
Vaishya, an eighth ; for killing a Shudra, a sixteenth. If a Brahman
kill a cat, an ichneumon, a Chdsha (the Indian blue jay), a frog, a
dog, a lizard, an owl, or a crow, he has to perform the same penance
as for killing a Shudra, that is the chdndrdyana. (70-132.) A
Brahman having connexion or eating with a Chandala, or other low'-
caste woman, or receiving gifts from such a person, loses his own caste
if he acts unwittingly, and sinks to a level Avith them if he acts
wittingly. (175.) The associate for a year of a fallen person falls
bke him ; and must perform his prescribed penance. (176.)

After noticing these and other penances, Manu treats of the method
of excluding from caste. The Sapindas and other relatives of the

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

389

patita must offer (to his manes as if he were dead), ia the evening of
an unlucky day, a libation of water, — his connections, an officiating
priest (Kitsik), and his guru being present; a slave-girl breaking the
pot (of water) ; and the kinsmen remaining impure for a day and
night. They must afterwards cease to speak or to sit with him,
withhold all inheritance and property from him, refuse him common
attentions, and deprive him of his rights of primogeniture. Other
parties also must cease to have any intercourse with him. A similar
course is to be observed in the case of outcasted women, who may be
permitted, however, to be humbly fed, clothed, and lodged in huts
near the family residence. (183-6-9.) Manu contemplates the pos-
sibility of restoration to caste after this formidable ejection (187-8);
but this restoration by penance, after the breaking of the pot, seldom,
if ever, now occurs in Indian society.

Manu, as reported, again returns to the subject of penances, the last
laws found in the Sanhita ascribed to him not fitting in appropriately
with those already noticed.

Neglecters of the Gtiyatrf and the sacred string (at the appointed
tifne) are admissible to them after penance.

A person saying humph ! to a Brahman must bathe, fast for a day ,
and clasp the feet of the offended party. (205.) For striking a Brah-
man with a blade of grass, tying him by the neck with a cloth, and over-
powering him in argument, the offender must fall prostrate before him.
(207.) A person intending to strike a Brahman with intent to kill
remains in hell a hundred years, actually striking him, a thousand.
Every drop of a Brahman’s blood shed and attracting particles of dust,
demands a thousand years’ torment for each of these particles.
(206-7.)

The prescribed penances are next explained, and those of the Praja-
patya, Santapana, etc., but in a way somewhat different from that stated
in the notes above appended to Angiras, which correspond with the
prevalentBrahmanical interpretation. (211-226.) The alleged benefits
of penance and repentance are stated at length. Tapa is declared to be
all-prevalent. (240.)

Even in connexion with the future world, the subject principally
treated of in the twelfth, or last, chapter of Manu, Caste is made to
appear with all its pretensions and partialities.

390

WHAT CASTE IS.

When treating of the three qualities of Satva, Baja, and Tama
(purity, passion, and darkness), said to be inherent in the productions
as well as in the essence of Deity, and their connexion with transmi-
gration and their division into their conditions of the

lowest, the mean, and the highest, he places SMdras and illlechchlias,
with elephants, horses, lions, tigers, and boars in the middle condition
of the T'amasa quality; — only worms, insects, reptiles, etc. being below
them ; while Chdranas, Suparnas, and “ deceitful men,” and even the
devilish Rakshasas and Pishachas, are put above them in the highest
place of this quality, (xii. 41-44.) JliaUas, Mallas, and Natas (said
by the commentator to be Vratyas of the Kshatriyas,) Manu places in the
Eajasa condition, above all the parties above mentioned. Of course
the Brahmans are placed in the condition of purity, accord-
ing to their own grades ; — devotees (Tapasvis), mendicants (Yatis),
and common Brahmans (Vipras) arriving at the lowest state of
purity ; sacrificers and Rishis, at the middle; and Brahma and the
Brahmans participating in creation (the Prajapatis) at the highest,
(xii. 48-50.)

The slayer of a Brahman must enter the body of a dog, a boar, an
ass, a camel, a bull, a goat, a sheep, a stag, a bird, or of a Chanddla
or Pukkasha. (55.) The stealer of the gold (of a Brahman) must
pass a thousand times into the bodies of spiders, snakes, etc. (57.)
Individuals of the four Variias for omitting their peculiar (Caste) duties
must enter sinful bodies, and become slaves to their foes. A Brdh-
man making this omission becomes an Ulkamukha, (with a mouth like a
flame of fire,) and devours what is vomited ; a Kshatriya, a Kataputana,
and eats ordure and dead bodies ; a Vaishya, a Maitrakshajyotika, and
feeds on pus : and a Shudra, a Chailashaka, and feeds on lice. (70-2.)

The Brahmans, from their caste position and the possession of the
knowledge of spirit (atmajndna) and of the Veda are said to have pecu-
liar facilities for the attainment of future bliss. (82-87.) As fire
consumes with its own power living trees so he who knows the Vedas
consumes the taint of his own (sinful) acts. (101.)* On the failure of
ocular inspection of liie Vedas, of inference, and of the Shastra, that
which instructed Brahmans propound is to be held to be indubitable
law. (105, 109.)

♦ This sentence is a Brahmanical proverb. We have met it before in Angiras (shloka 102).

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

391

Tlie contents of tlie larger portion of the YajnavaLkya
Smriti and of the comment upon it of Vijnaneshvara, con-
tained in tlie Mitakshara, are given by the late Mr.
BoiTodaile, of the Bombay Civil Service, in the Appendix
to His Reports of Civil Causes decided by the Bombay
Court of Sadar Adalat.* Better Indices (in Sanskrit)
are contained in the Calcutta edition of the work published
in 1813, and in the Bombay lithographed edition of 1863.
After the extracts now made from Mann, it is not neces-
sary for the objects of this work that the references to that
Law-book should be very numerous.

The Shruti, Smriti, pure A'chdra, love of one’s soul (or self), and
good desires are thefoundations of religion, (i. 1-7.)

The mantras, or sacred texts, in the Sanskaras, or Sacraments, are
to be used by Dvijas, but not by Shiidras.

The teacher should instruct his disciple in Shaucha and A'chara,
(cei-emonial purity and observance) before teaching the Vedas. (1.2.7.)

A Brahman should receive the TJpanayana in his eighth year from
conception or birth ; a Kshatriya, in his eleventh ; and a Vai.shya, in
liis twelfth. A Brahman not receiving it before his sixteenth year, a
Kshatriya before his twenty-second year, and a Vaishya before his
twenty-fourth year, are to be esteemed Vrdtyas and fallen from the
Savitrl. (i. 6. 29.)

During eating, silence has to be maintained ; and water has to be
drunk before and after eating.

In connexion with the duties of a householder the following instruc-
tions are given. The purification and relief of the body are to be
attended to. The teeth are to be rinsed. The Homa is to be per-
formed moi-ning and evening. The Vedas and Shastras are to be
studied. The worship of God is to b^^ conducted. Water is to be
poured out to the gods and ancestors. The Vedas, Puranas, Itihiisas
and what treats of the Soul, are to be repeated. Balikarma (sacrifice
to ghosts), Svadha (sacrifice to ancestors), Homa (sacrifice to the gods),

* Printed for Government in 1821.

392

WHAT CASTE IS.

Svadhyaya (sacrifice to Brahma), and hospitality to men, are the five
daily great sacrifices. A portion of the food used in these sacraments
is to be thrown to dogs, Chandalas, and crows. Then, husband and
wife, after other inmates of the family are satisfied, have to eat
what remains, (i. 5. 1-30.)

The following are said to be the common duties universally of all
men: — Abstinence from killing, truthfulness, abstinence from theft,
(ceremonial) purity, the control of the senses, the imparting of gifts,
eelfcommand, compassion, endurance."^' (15. 26.)

A Brahman sacrificing Avith what he has begged fi-om a Shudra
becomes a Chandala; and not sacrificing with what he has got for a
sacrifice, he becomes a hlidsa, or a croAv. (1. 5. 31.)

No intercourse is to be maintained by Snatakas with hypocrites, or
heretics. (1.6. 2.) They are to dress in AA'hite clothing, (ib. 3.)
Nature is not to be relieved in rivers (Avhich are esteemed sacred).
The couch, stonl, garden, house, or conveyance of any other party is
not to be used by a Snataka. He is to take no food from a party not
using the sacred fire. (ib. 32.) As stated by Augiras, the Dasa,
Cowherd, Kulamitra, Ardhasirina, and Barber may eat with the Shudra.
(ib. 38.)

The legislation of Yajnavalkya on the subject of eatables and non-
eatables is similar to that of Manu. Flesh procured for profane purposes
or Avith hair or maggots ; food prepared for another party, or prepared
on a preceding day and left by another, and touched by dogs or a
woman in her courses, breathed on by cows, left by birds, or touched
by a foot, is not to be ate. Food of ghrita or other liquids, wheat,
barley, and coav’s milk, though prepared beforehand, may be talten.
The milk of the cow is not to be taken till the tenth day after the
cahdng. For eating intentionally the flesh of the jay, of red-footed
(birds), and of fishes, fasting is to be obserA^ed for three days. The
Chandrayana is to be performed for eating onions, village-pigs, mush-
rooms, village-foAvls, leeks, and carrots. Of certain five-claAved animals
he may eat as already intimated (i. 7) by Manu.f But, in the case of

f See before p. 32.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

393

Brdlimans, all use of animal food is now discouraged, though it is re-
sorted to by certain classes of them.

On the purification of articles, the legislation of Ydjnavalkya is
similar to that of Angiras. (i. 8.)

The section on Danadharma (or largesses) opens with the praise of
the Brahmans, who are to be the objects of the liberality prescribed.
The gift of a cow with the calf half-born is the best of all gifts ; it is
like that of the earth itself. The giver obtains by it a year of heaven-
ly bliss for every hair of its body. Gold, tila-seeds, lamps, gi-ains,
trees, horses, chariots, couches, etc., etc., are suitable gifts, (i. 9.)

For the performance of Shraddhas, either on the occasion of births,
deaths, eclipses, or the (ninety-six) established occasions in a year
connected with days and months. Brahmans learned in all the A^^das,
skilled in the knowledge of Brahma, and various relatives, are to be
called. Brahmans diseased, blind of an eye, of loose character, of
adulterous origin, with badnails, w'ith black teeth, imperfectly clothed,
of evil speech, practising merchandise, teaching for hire, without man-
hood, practising fornication, disaffected to friends, backbiters, sellers of
the Soma, abandoners of gurus or parents, eaters with Kunda-golakas,
holders of intercourse with outcastes, thievish, of bad conduct, and
of bad report, are not to be invited, (i. 10 3-8.)

The propitiating of Ganapati and of the planets, which is treated of
at some length, is the duty of all castes, though particularly binding
on the prince, (i. 11, 12.)

The duties of the prince are laid down, somewhat after Manu, with
certain variations. When he gives land to Brahmans, the deed of gift
should be on cloth or on copper-plates, with his seal and the names
of himself and ancestry attached, (i. 13. 10-12). He is encouraged
to give in charity of the fruits of his valour ; and he is a.ssured that
pai’adise {svarga) will be the result of his death in battle, (ib. 15-16)-
lie has to preserve the deshdchdra and Kulusthiti (the customs of coun-
tries and families.) (ib. 35.)

In the second chapter, which treats of Vyavalidra, or the Law of Com-
mon Life, in which the legislation is of a character superior to that of the
first, — there is but little directly connected with Caste. Yet some impor-
tant matters are to be noted in it. In discharge of debt, the claims of
the Brahmans, and next in oi’der those of Kshatriyas, Vaisliyas, and

394

W'HAT CASTE IS.

Shudras respectively, are to be regarded, (li. 2. 5.) The convenience oi
Brahmans is to be consulted in the payment of their debts, (ib. 7.)

son sliould pay the debts of a father not heard of, or deceased, or in-
capacitated [according to Vijnaneshvara, on the authority ofNarada,
when he has the power of administration oil becoming sixteen years of
age.] Corporal punishment is not be inflicted on Bnilimans. (ib. ii. 3. 12.)
Double or triple punishment is to be inflicted on the revilers of the
Pratiloma Castes,* while only half punishment is to be inflicted
on the revilers of the Anuloma. The revilers of Brahmans, kings,
and gods are to be punished according to the uttama sahas (in the
highest degree, with a fine of 1,000 panas) ; of the other castes, with
the madJiyama sahas, (the middle degree, of 500 panas ; and of towns
and countries with the prathama sahas (the first degree, of 250 panas).
(ii. 16-1-8.) A person not a Brahman giving pain to a Brahman
should lose the member by which he has oflTended him ; threatening
a Brahman with an upraised weapon, he should suffer the prathama
sahasa ; and merely touching a weapon in the thought of using it
against a Brdhman, he should suffer the half of this punishment,
(ii. 17-4.) A man committing adultery in his own caste is to be pun-
ished according to the highest scale ; with a person lower than his own
caste, according to the middle class; and with a pei’son, higher in caste
than himself, with death, while the woman is to be deprived of her
ears and nose. Persons carrying off girls of higher ca.ste than their
own are to be punished with death. A person of high caste having
intercoui'se with a low caste woman desiring it is guiltless ; but having
intercourse with such a person not desiring it he is blame-worthy,
(ii. 22. 4-6.) A person of caste having intercourse with an antyaja
woman, is to be stamped with a mark, or abandoned in disgrace. A
Shiidra having intercourse w'ith an antyaja woman becomes an antyaja.
An antyaja having intercourse with an Aryan woman is to be put to
death, (ii. 22-12.) Any person defiling a Brahman by an article
forbidden to be ate is to be jninished with the highest fine ; thus de-
filing a Kshatriya, with the middle fine ; thus defiling a Vaishiya, with
the low fine ; and thus defiling a Shiidra with the half of the low fine,
(ii. 23. 2.) A Shiidra, assuming the marks of a Bi ahman should he
fined eight hundred panas. In this legislation, there is only a general
* See before pp. 63-64.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

395

agreement with tliat of tlie other Smriti,s. For much of Vijnaneslivara’a
Commentary on Yajnavalkya there is no foundation in the text. The
annotator, as he proceeds, draw.s copiously on other authorities.

A child dying before the completion of its second year is to be
buried and not burned, (iii. 1. 1.) The ceremonies needful on burn-
ing the dead are not to be repeated in the case of Brahraacharis and
the degraded, or in the case of heretics, the unprotected, fratricides,
sensualists, drunkards, or suicides, (ib. 5-6.) The great source of
comfort held out to the bereaved is the fact that death is the resolution
of the body into the five elements. (9.) Persons who may have car-
ried the dead to be burned should not be touched for a day. (16.)
Parents are ceremonially unclean for three or for ten days after the
death of a child not older than two years. (18.)* A Kshatriya is
impure for twelve days, a Vaishya, for fifteen, and a Sluidra for
thirty, (while a Brahman is impure only for ten days), on occasion
of the death of an adult relative. (22.) No Sluidra should attend the
burning of a Dvija ; and no Dvija, that of a Sluidra. A king does not
become impure by the death of his relations ; and no impurity arises
from those who die in defence of cows and Brahmans. (27.)

In times of distress, a Brahman may follow the Dharma of a Ksha-
triya or of a Vaishya (iii. 2. 1), abstaining, however, 'from selling
forbidden articles (2-4).

The origin of the four castes is stated according to the orthodox
view. (iii. 4. 71.)

Atonements for varioirs offences are prescribed as in IManu. (iii. 6.)
In the case of Mahapatakas a Sluidra has not the privilege of Jdjta (re-
peating mantras) and some other ceremonial observances of the higher
castes ; but by using the other means prescribed for twelve years, he
may make an atonement for his offences under this heading, (iii. 7.1.)

A thousand oxen or cows are to be given for the homicide of a
Kshatriya, or a Vrata for the slaughter of a Brahman, observed for
three years ;f a hundred cows for that of a Vaishya, or a Vrata for

* The difference about the time of impurity in this instance is attributed to the
different teachings of the authors of the Smritis. Manu mentions ten days for its con-
tinuance.

t In the case of the in.advertent slaughter of a Brahman, the penitential Vrata (begging
with a skull in hand) has to last for twelve years, (iii. 6. 37.)

396

WHAT CASTE IS.

one year ; ten cows for that of a Shiidra, or a Vrata (a voluntarily
imposed penance) of six months, (iii. 8. 2-3.)

For the slaughter of a bad wife of a Brahman, a leather skin
for drawing water has to be given ; for that of a Kshatriya, a bow ;
for that of a Yaishya, a goat ; for that of a Shudra, a ram, (iii. 8. 4) ;
and tor the slaughter ol a good woman what is given for the slaughter
of a Shudra. (5.)

The benefits of hearing or repeating the Smriti of Yajnavalkya are
said, at the close of the treatise, to be great indeed. It makes a Brah-
man venerable, a Kshatriya victorious, and a Vaishya rich and pros-
perous. The poor Shudra has to be satisfied with the information he
may get of it from the Dvijas, according to his exigencies as they may
occur.

Ill the Pardshara Smriti, the general contents of which
I have already noticed, no regular arrangement is ob-
served. The work is reckoned a great authority in the
Kali Yuga ; and it is evidently more modern than some
of the other law collections of its class- It gives the
following list of Smritis at its commencement : — those
of Manu, Garga, Gautama, Vasi.fhtlia, Kashyapa, Gopala,f
Atri, Vishnu, SanvarUa, Daksha, Angiras, Shatatapa,
Harita, Yajnavalkya, vV'pastamba, Shankha and Likhita,
Katyayana, Pracheta, and Shrutiraja (Parashara 1 ).
Manu, it is added, prevailed as an authority in the
three first Yugas, while the Akhava of the three Yogas
is not for the present Kali Yuga. Tupa ivas the
highest duty in the Krita Yuga; knowledge, in the
Treta; and sacrifice in the Dvapara ; while the giving
of largesses is the highest duty in the Kali. The
Dharma (religious law) of Manu was for the Krita ;

* At p. 357.

t In the copy referred to by Dr. Stenzler (lud. Stud. i. 232) the
name of Ushanas liere occurs for that of Gopala.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

397

that of Gautama for the Treta ; that of Sliankha
and Likhita for tlie Dvapara ; and tliat of Parashara is
for the Kali. The party guilty of a fault infected a
country in the Krita Yuga ; in the Treta^ a village; in
the Dvapara, his fan)ily ; and in the Kali, himself. A
person hecawe jyat/la (fallen from caste) in the Krita,
by conversation ; in the Treta, by contact; and in the
Dvapara, by eating (forbidden) food ; -while in the
Kali, by deeds. In the Krita largesses were taken
to the house (of the party to be benefited by them) ; in
the Treta, by calling him to receive them) ; and in the
Dvapara, by simply relieving the asker ; while in the
Kali, they are to be bestowed only for service. In the
Krita, the pranas (five vital airs) were in the elements
(of the body) ; in the Treta, in the flesh ; in the Dvaj)ara,
in the blood ; while, in the Kali, they are in the food.
The Dvijas are not to-be blamed for the peculiarities of
the respective Yugas. In the Krita, curses took imme-
diate effect ; in the Treta after ten days ; in the Dvapara,
after a month ; while in the Kali Yuga, after one year."'^
Pure religion and truth in the Kali have only a fourth
part of their proper dimensions. Life is shortened (in this
Yuga) by eating forbidden things. Dharina and tapa
are practised only for ostentation. There will be much
false speaking for the sake of wealth. Little milk will be
yielded by cows ? The earth will yield but little grain.
Woman will bear only females. The intercourse of
the sexes will be only for pleasure. Princes (Bhupalas}

* Professor Mouier Williams correctly says, in liis excellent In-
augural Lecture, that the curse of a Brahman is always supposed
among the Hindus to take effect sooner or later.

398

WHAT CASTE IS.

will be subjected to Dasyus. Sliudras will have the
A'chara of Brahmans ; and the Dvijas that of Shudras.
The high castes (adyavarnas) will earn their livelihood like
the lowest (antyajas). The KritaYuga was for the Brah-
mans ; the Treta for the Kshatriyas ; the Dvapara for the
Vaishyas ; and the Kali is for the Shudras. Womenof the
lower Castes will not be married with the higher according
to the law which permitted the Dvijas to add to the wife
of their own class one from each of the lower of the four
Varnas. Duty and sin will be commingled. The merit
which was of a million deo-rees of fruit in the Krita was of
a hundred thousand in the Treta, of ten thousand in the
Dvapara, and will be of a hundred in the Kali-
(i. 1-13-39.) Specific legislation follows this general
account of the modifications caused by the Yugas.

The Dvijas should live where the black antelope moves, between the
Himavat and the Vindhya, where the ocean-going rivers flow, where
the great tirthas are found, and where the Kishis dwell. This is the
land of purity ; but Shudras may live where they are inclined. The
countiy is bad where things not to be drunk are drunk, not to be eaten
are eaten, and where unlawful connexions are formed, (i. 1-40-45.)

A Biahman may give food to a Kshatriya, a Vaishya, or a Shudra
visiting him at the time of a meal. (i. 6. 12-13.)

The general duties of the four Varnas are laid down as in Manu
and the other Smritis. It is declared, however, to be a sin, even on
the part of a Shudra, to sell spirits or flesh, (i. 7. 1-14.)

The water thrown (for consecration) on the horn of a cow is sixteen
times better than that of all the tirthas of the rivers and oceans of the
earth, (i. 8. 28.)

Ifa Dvija eat food on the last day of the moon {chandrahshaya
vulgo amdvdsjja) he will lose his merit for the month, (i. 8. 37.)

The achara offiimilies and countries is strongly inculcated on all
classes of people, as their supreme duty. (i. 9. 200.)

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

399

A Shu Ira is in the matter of ddna to be reckoned like a fool, to whom
nothing is to be given, (i. 9. 217.)

A Dvija eating of the food of a person not on the right road, or of a
mean person, becomes instantly like a Sluidra ; and after deatli he be-
comes a village-pig {yilashukara). He who eats the food of a usurer, or of
a shepherd, or of a person who has lost caste, goes to hell. A Dvija
eating from the hands of a Sluidra wife goes to the Eaurava hell,
(i. 9. 284.)

Dvijas should not perform any religious services or sacrifices to get
gifts from Shudras, on the penalty of becoming chandalas. (i. 9. 293)

Animal food may be ate at Shraddhas and sacrifices, and in times of
famine, (i. 9. S17.)

The following classes of Brahmans are not to be employed at Shrad-
dhas:— The blind of an eye, he who has broken a contract of mari iage,
a diseased person, a backbiter, a usurer, an ungrateful person, a wrath-
ful person, a hater of friends, a person with bad nails or black teeth,
one wanting a limb or having a superfluous limb, a eunuch, one of
bad report, one of bad speech, one who teaches for hire, a polluter of
virgins, a shopkeeper, a seller of the Soma, one ruled by his wife,
one of illegitimate birth, a forsaker of his parents, a thief, a vrishalipati,
one ignorant of his own duties, one who has a wife who has been before
married, a goatherd or keeper of buffaloes, one accused of evil deeds,
a receiver of unlawful presents, one who habitually lives on alms, an
astrologer or a messenger, one who, after eating on the burning-ground
on the eleventh day after the death, has not taken the prescribed
atonement, etc., etc. (v. 1-12.)

Arrangements should be made to prevent Brahmans at Shraddhas
imitating the sound of Shudras, swine, cocks, (v. 58.)

A Brahman begging regularly from low caste people, from Mlench-
has, and distillers, is pronounced a Baka, or heron, (v. 53.)

In the case of death or birth there is no impurity to the liberal, to
those who are addicted to making vows, to poets, to saci ificers, to Agni-
hotris, to the .skilled in the six-Angas (of the Vedas), to a king, to a
persons skilled in the shruti. In the kali (yuga) there is no impurity
except what may be removed by immediate ablution. A Brahman at-
tending the funeral of a Shiidra is impure for three days. (vi. 11-12 )

If a Dvija be touched by a Chaudala when making water, he must

400

WHAT CASTE IS.

fast for six nights. If a Brahman when eating be touched by anothe r
Braliman, lie must sip water and repeat the names of Vishnu; if a
he be touched by a Kshatriya, he must fast till night ; if, by a
Vaishj'a, he must iu addition to this fast, swallow the five products of
the cow; if by a Sluidra, or a dog, he must fast for a day and night;
if by a washerman, or other low castes, he must perform the half of
the prajapatya penance. If a Brahman when eating be touched
by a woman who is impure from a birth or restraint, or by a Mlen-
chha, he must fiist till sunset, and bathe in water kept for a day.
(vi. 48-57.)

Shabaras, Pulindas, Kikatas (aboriginal tribes), and Natas are like
washermen. If a Vaishya go to a woman of the washerman caste, he
has to take cow’s urine, and half-ripe barley for six days, or perform
a double krichhra. (vi. 312-314.)

The rules for defilement in eating given by Parashara are similar to
those of Angiras.

Food cooked in the Louse of a Shudra may be ate at a river when
sprinkled with its water, accompanied by a repetition of the Gayatn'.
Unboiled grain, flesh, clarified butter, honey, oil, and different kinds of
fruits are impure while they are in the vessels of Mlenchhas, but pure,
when taken from them.* Milk, cui-ds, and clarified butter are pure
when in the vessels of the Abhiras (viewed as cowherds). Market
wares ai'e pure while in the hands of the venders, (vi. 315-324.)
The rules for the cleansing of vessels are like those of Angiras
and Manu.

A Brahman is not to accept gifts when in a state of impurity from
births or deaths. When he receives gifts from a Brahman, he has to ac-
knowledge them in a loud voice ; from a Rajanya, in a gentle voice ;
from a Vaishya, in a whisper ; and from a Shudra, in his own mind.
With a Brahman, he has to commence by saying Om ; with a king he has
to utter thanks without the Om ; with a Vaishya, to whisper thanks ;
and with a Sluidra, to wish thanks, imagining himself to say, svasti
(this is good), (vii. 82-88.)

The whole administration of Shdnti, or propitiation, of the god.s,

* From the specification of the Jllenchhas, or Barbarians, iu connexion with these
products, it seems to be warrantable to infer that the articles were sometimes
imported into India at least from the neighbouring provinces.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

401

elements, devils, etc., and of houses, temples, tanks, etc. is in the
hands of the Brahmans (ix, passim).

The M-ork concludes with a statement of the doctrines and practices
connected with the Yoga.

The best digest of Hindu law, all things considered,
is probably to be found in the Mayukha of Kamalakara
Bhatta, to which reference has already been made. Its
twelve Bays, or divisions, are not always arranged in
the same order. With a view to indicate the applica-
tion of these divisions to such of the social customs of the
Hindus as are more or less connected with Caste, I notice
their contents, at greater or less length, as needful for
the objects of this Avork.

(1.) In the Sanskdra Mayukha^ after some general
references to the authoritative literature of the Hindus,
Ave liaA'e notices of eleA^en of the sixteen Sacraments, in
connexion with Avhich the peculiarities of the four A'sh-
ramas of the Brahmans, and the general duties of
Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shiidras, and Avomen are treated
of. In this department of the Avork, howeA^er, there is
nothing which AA^e haA’e not already noticed.

(2.) In the Shunti Mayiikha^ which treats of the
propitiation of the gods and other objects of fear, Ave
ha\"e the following principal sections : — ■

The worship (pujd) of Ganapati.

The ablution ( sndpana ) of Yinayaka (Ganapati).

Sacrifice to the Planets.

Characteristics (for good or evil) of the Planets.

Characteristics of Ganapati and of the Lokapiflas (guardians of
the Cardinal Points).

Directions for the Homas (bnmt-sacrlfices) of 100,000, 1,000,000,
or 100,000,000 dhutis, or oblations.

The Puja of Houses.

402

WHAT CASTE IS.

Tlie Puj«a of the Arches of Gateways.

The Puja of objects resembling the Deities, as of Nandi, Garuda, etc.

The Propitiation of the Grahayogas (conjunctions of the Planets).

The Propitiation of the Planets, in their individuality.

The Propitiation of Raliu and Ketu, (the ascending and descending
Nodes), hut viewed as devils seizing the sun and moon, and causing
their eclipse.

The Arka-Vivaha, the third marriage of a Brahman, made first to
the Asclepias gigantea, and afterwards to the bride.*

The Shanti of a woman’s courses.

The Shanti of the birth of a calf.

Tlie Shanti of new teeth.

Tlie Shanti of a birth occm-ring on the fourteenth day of the decrease
of the moon.

The Shanti of the full-moon, and of the last day of the moon.

The Shanti of a birth occurring on the day of the new moon.

The Shanti of the Nakshatras (Lunar Mansions).

The Shanti of a birth occurring during an eclipse.

The Shanti of the Visha-Ghatika (the Poisonous or unlucky Ghatikd
of the thirty ghatikas in a day and night).

The Shanti of the Gandanta-Yoga (an unlucky conjimction of the
Nakshatras).

Tke Shanti of disgusting occurrences.

The Shanti of the entrance of the sun into particular signs of the
zodiac.

The Shanti of falling into fevers, etc.

The Shanti of days specified in the Sutras of A'shvalayana.

The Shanti of eclipses.

The Shanti of injuries to receptacles of water and fire.

The Shanti of the falling of great walls.

The Sh&ti of disease in trees.

The Shanti of the falling of lizards.

The Shanti of village and wild animals, as of the dove, crow, horse,
and elephant.

(3.) The contents of the Vyavahdra Mayukha are

* Has this custom originated from the shame of third marriages, prevalent among
the olden Hindus ?

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

403

SO similar to the chapter on the same subject of the
Mitakshdra of Yajnavalkya, to which we have already
referred, and bear so little on caste observances, that
we have little to notice connected "with them.

When enjoining the preservation of the customs and laws of country,
caste, and family (for the content of the people), it mentions that
the Dvijas of the South take the daughter of a mother’s brother in
marriage ; that those of the Middle-country act as artizans and eat
kine ; that those of the East eat fish and have wives who are pros-
titutes; and that those of the North drink intoxicating liquors, and
approach their women when they should not be touched : and it holds
that they are not deserving of punishment on these accounts.*

The evidence of parties connected with particular Vargas (classes)
is to be taken in cases in which these Vargas are concerned. The
evidence of foreigners and women is to be taken, too, in their special
afl’airs. The evidence of a person fallen from caste is not to be taken. f
Outcasted persons have no share in inheritance. J
Caste-communion, it is maintained according to injunctions of the
Smritis already noticed, is not to be held with a person who has passed
the sea in a ship, even though he may have performed penance for
it ; and therefore connexion with such a person in this Yuga is
reprehensible.

Ndrada is quoted as saying that a woman left to her own will
(svairini) who is not a Brahmani, may have connexion with a man of
higher caste than herself, though not of a lower, though the man
himself is reprehensible. § Yama is quoted as teaching that a Brah-
mani, having connexion with a Shudra, is to be devoured by dogs,
and having connexion with a Kshatriya or a Vaishya is merely to have
her head shaved and to be carried round on an ass. ||

A creditable translation of the Vyavahara Mayiikha
was published by Mr. Borrddaile of the Bombay Civil

* Vyavahdra Majiikha, i. 1.1 3. t W n- 3. 6-7.

J V. M. iv. 11. 3. This law of mkeritance is now disavowed under the British
Government.

§ V. M. iv. 29. 11.

II V. M. iv. 19. 12.

404

WHAT CASTE IS.

Service in 1827. The work, too, was translated into
]\Iarathi by Raghunatha Shastri Date.

(4.) Iwihe PrdyascJiitta Mayiikha^ after general state-
ments on the nature and objects of atonements and pen-
ances, prescriptions are made for sins committed in a
former birth, (indicated by diseases, ailments, etc.) ; di-
rections are given for ablutions by sand and by water ;
the specific acts of general penances are mentioned ; and
the distmctions of offences are enumerated. Penances
are prescribed for a party falsely accused of offences ;
for a man cut short m his days ; for drunkemiess ; for
eatuig what is forbidden ; for eating flesh ; for takmg
food with a person engaged with a sacrament ; for eating
food uijured by keepmg ; for theft of gold ; for inter-
course with low-caste women ; for adultery ; for mter-
course with beasts ; for gambling ; for familiarity with
parties guilty of offences ; for touching the lea\fings of
meals ; for muior sins ; for sacrificing for the unworth}'' ;
for abusing virgins ; for abandonmg the household fire ;
and for miscellaneous faults.

(5.) In the Shrdddha MayuJcha the general doctrme
and practice of Shraddhas is treated of. But this subject,
as far as caste is concerned, has been already exhausted
in the precedmg pages.

(6.) The Samaya Mayuhha^ which treats of the
times and seasons of religious serwces, and the duties of
days and months, does not bear upon Caste, though
it strikmgly illustrates the formality and bondage m
which the Hindu worshipper is constantly kept. The
Mann Sanliita, it tells us, prevails in the Krita Yuga ;
the Gautama, in the Treta ; the Shankha and Likhita

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

405

in the Dvapara ; and the Pardshara in the Kali. The
following laws, formerly current, it also tells us, have
been repealed in the Kali Yuga.

The law pemiitting the raising up of issue upon the widow of a
deceased brother.

Tile law allowing a girl mentally intended to be given to a particular
husband to marry another husband should he die.

The law allowing Brahmans to have four wives, (one of each of th e
primitive castes), Kshatriyas to have three, and Vaishyas to have two.

The law allowing the killing of Brahmans in the act of attempting
murder.

Tlie law allowing Dvij as who may have passed OA’er the sea to be
received into caste on their performing penance.

The law allowing the performance cf Satradikshd (sacrificing) for
all classes of men (not lower than Shudras).

The law allowing the caiTying of a water-pot (the emblem of enter-
ing into the Sanyasashrama.)

The law allowing Mahdprasthdnagamana (walking on pilgrimage,
in the direction of the Himalaya, till the pilgrim be carried ofi" to
heaven).

The slaughter of a bull for sacrifice.

The drinking of spirits, even at the Sautramani (the sacrifice to
Indra).

The law allowing enti’ance into the Vdnaprasfhdshrama.

The law forbidding the capital punishment of Brahmans deliberate-
ly committing a Mahapataka.

The law requiring the exaction of atonements for familiarity ( sansar-
ga) with sinners.

The law requiring penances for sins committed in secret, with the
exception of theft.

The law allowing the use of flesh in Shraddhas.

The law pennitting filiation by other ways than by birth or adoption.

The law requiiing the abandonment of a wife for common sins (smaller
than adultery).

The law requiring one to give up his own life in the protection of
cows and Brahmans,

406

WHAT CASTE IS.

The law allowing the sale of the Soma juice.

Tlie law requiring the killing (by officiating Brahmans) of animals
in sacrifice (the deed being now done by Shudras).

The law allowing a householding Brahman, on a long pilgrimage, in
difficulties, to eat from a Dasa, Gopala, Kulamitra, Ardhasiri.

The law allowing Brahmans to obtain a livelihood in times of difficulty
by doing the work of Kshtriyas, Yaishyas, and Shudras.

The law allowing a Sanyasi to beg and receive Dakshina from all
castes, to stay ten days anywhere as a guest, and to lodge wherever he
might be found at sunset.

The law forbidding the wandering of Brahmans,

The law forbidding a Brahman to blow into fire with his mouth.

The law interdicting the giving of evidence in cases between a father
and a son.

The law requiring the Brahmacharya A'shrama to last for forty-eight
years (from the binding of the sacred string, being twelve years for the
study of each Veda).

The law allowing the marriage of maternal cousins.

The law allowing the killing of cows.

The law allowing the sacrifice of men and horses.

The law allowing the re-marriage of females.

The gift of a larger share (in inheritance) to the eldest son.

The law sanctioning the performance of the Eajasuya.

The law ordering the practice of ordeal (which some nevertheless
think advantageous).

These thirty-four instances of repeal very decidedly
prove the mutability of the Hindu laws, a fact which
should not be overlooked by native reformers.* In quali-
fication of the repeal of the laws respecting Agnihotra and
Sanyasa, it is added that they may be practised while the
distinctions of Caste and the Vedas are acknowledged.

(7.) In the Niti Mayiikha the duties of kings are
treated of much as in the Law-book ascribed to Manu.

* The list here given is considerably larger than that found in the
General Note appended to Sir William Jones’s translation of Manu.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

407

(8.) The Pratislitlid Mayuhha treating of the con-
secration of temples, houses, fortifications, images, etc.,
deals with religious and not caste observances.

(9.) The Utsarga Mayuhha treats of celebrations
connected with shrines, idols, tanks, wells, etc.

(10.) The A'chdra Mayuhha treats of the practical
religion of life, and is very extensive and comprehen-
sive. Much of it is devoted to caste-matters, but to
caste-matters more as they affect indi\fiduals than as
they affect social intercommunion. The following are
the principal subjects of which it treats, dra^ving its
materials principally from the Smritis andthePuranas : —

How the Dvija should get awake at the BrsOima Muhurtta (the
last Muhurtta of the night).

How the natural evacuations should he effected ; how the parties
seeking relief should turn to the north during the day, and to the
south during the night ; how silence should be observed, and solitude
sought ; and how cleansings should be effected by water or earth, etc.

How dchamana (the sipping of water, and spitting it out again)
should be performed — on relieving nature ; on dining ; on touching the
leavings of food ; on the passing of ivind ; on being touched by cats,
and other impure animals ; on uttering falsehood ; on commencing
any religious work ; on seeing a crow, a washerman, a musician
(vena), a fishennaa, or a dancer ; on speaking with a chandala or
mlenchlia ; on speaking with a woman or Shudra ; before washing
the hands after dinner ; on shedcUng tears or blood ; on touching
a place where cows. Brahmans or women are killed; on dreaming ;
on sneezing or spitting ; on seeing persons defiling themselves ; on
falling before a guru ; on eating leaf and betelnut ; on putting on new
clothes ; and on touching a woman during her sutika (of ten days
after a birth). The number of achamanas needed on particular
occasions is also stated.

How, and when, and with what kind of wood, the rinsing of the
teeth is to be performed, and not performed. The stick of a Brahman

408

WHAT CASTE IS.

ought to be of twelve finger breadths ; of a Shudra, Vaishya, and
Kshatriya, of six finger-breadths ; and of a woman of four finger-
breadths. Particular woods used are lucky, and others imlucky.

How the pavitra, or ring of Kusha grass, to be worn on the fourth
finger, is to be worn at certain religious and other services. A Brah-
man should use four blades of grass ; a Kshatriya, three ; and a
A'aishya, two.

How ablutions should be performed. They are classed into the
necessary, the voluntary, the occasional, tliose needful for cleanliness,
and the secondary. The first season for them is the morning. The
gradation of merit of waters rises as follows : — still waters, flowing
waters, the ocean, tirthas, the Ganges. The face should be turned to
the east in bathing. After ablution a Brahman should clothe him-
self in white vestments ; a Kshatriya, in red ; a Vaishya, in yellow ;
and a Shudra, in blue. The Dvijas should use mantras in bathing,
but Shudras should not use them. Ablution should follow the touch
of a Chandala, a woman in her courses, an out-caste, a Sutika, a
corpse, or the touch of a person defiled by touching any of these
objects, a Devalaka (dresser of images) when out of a temple, a Bud-
dhist, a Pashapata, a follower of Kapila (according to some testimo-
nies), an ill-behaved Dvija, any person who should not be touched,
one shedding tears, and a newly shaved person.

How the tilaJca* or religious mark, is to be applied to the body.
The clay to be preferably used is to be that of the top of a momitain,
of the bank of a river, of the Brahmakshetra, of the coast, of the sea,
of an anthill, of the roots of the Tulasi plant, and of Gopichandana from
Dvaravati (Dvaraka). It is to be daily applied for the destruction of
sin. A black tilaka is favourable to peacefulness ; a red one, to bringing
parties into one’s power ; and a yellow one, to wealth. The V aishnavas
(sectarial followers of Vishnu) ought to have a white tilaka. The ap-
plication of the tilaka by the thumb, produces fatness ; by the middle-
finger, water or heaven ; by the next finger, food ; and by the fore-fin-
ger, liberation (from births). According to the Vaishnavas, there
are twelve places for applying unguents, — the forehead, the belly, the
region of the heart, the neck, the two sides of the belly, the middle arms,
the tips of the ears, the elbows. "When applying them to the forehead,
* The root of this word is tUn, to be unctuous.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

400

(daring the hrightening half of the moon) the name Keshava is to be
prononneed ; wlren to the belly, Narayai^ ; when to tlie heart, ^lad-
hava ; when to the throat, Govinda ; when to tlie sides, Vishnu and
Vamana ; when to the arms, Madhusiidana ; when to tlie ears, Trivik-
rama ; when to the elbows, Shridliara and Hrishikesha ; when to the
back, Padmamibliia or Difmodara; and when to the cerebral region (not
mentioned above), Vasudeva. When the unguents are applied during
the darkening half of the moon, the preceding names are to be taken in
the reverse order. The forms of the unguents should be as follows : —
on the forehead, that of an upper arm ; on the ear, that of a rod ; on the
breast, that of a lotus ; on the belly, that of a flame ; on the arm, that
of the leaf of a bambu ; on the back, that of the rose-apple. The best
tilaka, from the tip of the nose to the hair, is of ten finger-breadths ;
that of middle worth, of nine ; and the lowest in value, of four, three^
or two finger-breadths. Without attention to these matters, Karmma
(the fruit of works) is lost. Figures of the conch-shell, and chakra
(sacred discus) should be applied to the body of the Vaishnava. The
leaves of the tulasi should also be ate by him. These injunctions are
said to be according to the Bi-ahma Parana. [According to A'shvahiyana
here also referred to, sectarial marks should not be used during V edic
ceremonies.] According to the Brahmanda Purana, the Urdhva-pvn-
(Iru (the upper marks of Shiva) are to be made by clay, sandalwood,
ashes, and water ; — after bathing, by clay; after the homa, by ashes; after
the worship of the gods, by sandalwood ; on doing any ceremony con-
nected with water, by water. If the unguent be by clay, its lines are
not to be horizontal, but vertical; if by a.shes, they are not to be vertical
but horizontal. They are to be used, according to Katyayana,
at shraddhas, sacrifices, japas, homas, the oblation to the
Vishvedevas, and the worship of the gods (suras). The places
for applying ashes are the forehead, the breast, the navel, the throat,
the shoulder and upper arm, the back, and the head. The Shivamantra
or Gayatri of the Atharvaveda is to be used when the application is
made. A householder should apply the ashes with water ; and the
Vanaprastha and Sanyasi should apply them without water. The
horizontal marks of a Brahman sliould be six finger-breadths long ; of
a Kshatriya, four ; of a Vaishya, two ; and of a 8hudra and others
beloAV him, of one. If the (Shaiva) Bjahman make not the trlpuvdra

410

WHAT CASTE IS.

(the ternary of lines) he becomes patita (fallen). Those who mock the
parties wearing these marks are the offspring of Shudras. From these
notices, it is apparent that the tilaka marks are chiefly of a sectarial
character.

How and where the ceremonies of Sandhyd at morn, noon, and even-
ing are to be performed.

How the Homa is to be perfonned ; how charity is to he dispensed ;
how the five great A’ajnas are to he managed ; how libations are
to be poured out to ancestors, to Bhishma, to Yama, and to the gods.

How Pujd (material worship) is to be given to the gods ; and what
flowers and leaves are acceptable or unacceptable to various gods;
and what are the suitable objects and places ior pujd. In connexion with
this matter, it is said that a Brahman ought to worship Vishnu as Yii-
sudeva ; a prince, as Sankarshana ; and a Yaishya, as Pradyumna ; and
a yiuidra, as Aniruddha. A Brahman ought to have four images ; a
Kshatriya, three; a Yaishya, two; and a Shudra, one. The worship
of the Shaligrama ought to be confined to Brahmans. A Shudra pro-
nouncing the sacred sjdlable Om, worshipping the Shaligrama, or going
to the wife of a Brahman, becomes a Chandala. A Brahman, whether
])ure or impure, ought, according to the Linga Purana, to be the agent
in worshipping the Shaligrama. If a Shudra or a woman touch it, its
touch will prove like that of a thunderbolt. Women, noninitiated
Briilimaus, and Shudras have no right to touch the emblems of Yi.shnu
or Shiva.

How is to be performed. A Brahman teaching a Shiidra to
pronounce the sacred Om or svdhd, becomes a Shudra, and the Shiidra
goes to hell.

How the worship of clay images (of the linga, etc.) should be
performed.

How at the worship of gurus, gifts should be given to them.

How the homa of the Yishvedevas is to be perfonned.

How the five mahayajnas ai’e to be performed.

How Bhojanas (feedings) are to effected. The mandala (enclosure)
formed by water on the ground for the vessel of a Brahman, ought to
be quadrangular ; of a Kshatriya, triangidar ; of a Yaishya, circular ;
and of a Shudra, semicircular. The vessels used ought to be of gold,
silver, copper, bell-metal, or of the leaves of the lotus, or the palasha

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

411

( Bntca froiulosa). ITowevcr, a Brahmaclum, Yati, or wkl ow , should
not dine either from bell-metal or the palasha leaf. Nothing is to he
ate of animals with five toes. Numerous and miimte rn les are to be
observed in the further proceedings. The three first classes must
neither eat nor drink with the left hand. Should a Dvija v iolate this
rule, his offence will be like that of drinking ardent spirits. A
Shudra, however, may drink water with that dishonoured organ of the
body. Nothing is to be taken which has fallen from the mouth.
Animal food is to be avoided. A Dvija, when eating, should not listen
to a Chandala, an outcaste, or a woman in her courses. The times of
eating are midday and the evening. Other injunctions, which we have
already extracted from the Law-books, are to be observed.

How the evening is to be spent after lamplighting ; how beds are
to be arranged ; and how strikritya is to be performed, except on
forbidden days.

What places for sleeping are forbidden ; — such as empty houses ;
graveyards ; the place where four roads meet ; places under trees ; the
shrines of Mahadeva and Devi ; places frecpiented by Niigas and
A'akshas ; mounds of sand or earth ; and Darbha grass, when the
Diksha is being performed. Sleep is to be taken during the second
and third of the four praharas of the night.

How dreams are to be interpreted, and their bad omens averted.

(11.) In the Dana Mai/ukha^ the duty and privilege
of giving gifts, especially to Brahmans, are amply and
keenly treated of. It Avell proves the fitet, Avhich Ave have
already noticed, that the imparting of gifts to the priestly
class is quite a science in the institutions of caste.* Tiie
folloAving is a general AueAV of its contents : —

What ddna (donum) is.

Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas have the right of giving dana
according to the Vedas ; Shudras and women, according to the Pura-
nas. Gifts to Shiidras should be confined to food and clothing. The
merit of giving to Shudras is of the ratio of one ; to Vaishyas, of two ;
to Kshatriyas, of three ; and to Bralnnans, of six.

* See before p. 27.

412

WHAT CASTE IS.

'Of acquisitions made, one-tliird should be reserved for a livelihood, and
two-thirds for dana, according to the work called Shivadharma. Of
cows every tenth should he given, according to tlie Bharata. Oold,
silver, or copper, given to a Yati (Sanyasi) consigns both the giver
and receiver to hell. No person who has offspring should part ndth
all his property, or with his Avife, a dependent, what is held in loan or
paAvn, what belongs to other members of a family as well as one’s
self, a pledge, AA'hat is included in stndhana, and a son.

Certain times are appropriate for gifts, such as Sundays, the
day of the sun entering into a new sign of tlie zodiac, eclipses,
festivals, etc..

Gifts at holy places are peculiarly meritorious ; yet those receiv-
ing them there (from a spirit of covetousness) have to perform
penance.

Both givers and receivers have to perform numerous ceremonies.
Gifts from Brahmans are to be acknowledged in a loud voice ; from
Kshatriyas, in a gentle voice ; from Vaishyas, in a Avhisper 5 and from
Shudras, in a silent acknoAvledgment.

Methods of measuring and weighing in dana, in the cases of money,
grain, land, etc., are prescribed.

Mundapas, or tabernacles, when erected by the givers of largesses,
are to he of a particular form, and of particular Avoods. Directions
are given for the construction of the sacrificial Kundas, or holes, Avhich
may be made in these Mandapas, some of them being of the form
of the vulvus, triangular, quadrangular, sexangnlar, lotus formed,
etc. etc., the shapes being different according to the castes, a Brah-
man’s being quadrangular, a Kshatriya’s, circular, a Vaishya’s, semi-
circular, and a Shudra’s, triangular. The depth of the Kundas is also
prescribed.

The planets, the Lokapalas, or guardians of the eight directions,
and Vinayaka (Ganapati) and other gods, are to be invoked. Holy
mantras are to be recited. Puja to houses and doors is to be perform-
ed. The holy fire is to be kindled. FloAvers are to be selected, fitted
to please individual gods. Particular mantras are to be repeated, those
of the Eig-Vedi and Yajur-Yedi, and Sama-YedI Brahmans being
different.

When all things are ready, the pi-ince proceeds to bestoAv his largesses.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

413

on the Bmhmaus. The Sixteen-Great-Gifts ( ShorlasJta-3rahdddndni)
according to the IMatsya Purapa, are the following* ; —

The Tulapurusliaddnct, the weight of a man or woman in any of the
precious metals, ghi, etc.; Hiranjjagarhhaddna, a golden fadus; the
Bruhmdndaddna, the gift of gold, in the form of the mundane egg ;
the Kalpataruddna, the gift of a golden tree, like that which satisfies
all human desires ; the Gosahasraddna, the gift of a thousand cows ;
the HiranyakdniadlLeiiuddna, the gift of a golden cow and calf, like the
cow which yields what may be desired; the Hirnaijdshvaddna, the gift
of a golden horse ; the- Iliranydshvarathaddna, the gift of a golden
chariot with (golden) horses ; the Ilemahastiddna, the gift of a golden
elephant, the Panchaldngaladdna, the gift of five plows of wood, and
of gold, with the bullocks added ; the Dhardddna, the gift of gold in
the form of the earth, a mountain, etc.; the Vishvachakraddna, the gift
of a golden wheel, or discus ; the Kalpcdatdddna, the gift of ten golden
creeping plants, with flowers ; the Suptasdgaraddna, the gift of seven
large oceanic golden vessels, of a cubit in diameter and depth; the
Ratnadhenuddna, the gift of a cow formed of set jewels; the Malidiblm-
taghataddna, the gift of a large golden vessel, of a hundred finger-
breadths, filled with milk or clarified butter. Minute rules are laid
down about the times and places at which and the methods by which
these gifts, so acceptable to the Brahmans and meritorious before the
gods, are to be given.

Besides these Sixteen-Great-Danas, there are also the Ten-Great-
Danas of the Kurmma Purana, the DashdmahdddndiKi. They are as
follows: — gold, a horse, tila, anaga (cobra serpent in gold), a slave girl,
a chariot, land, a house, a daughter, and a tawny-coloured cow.

Other Ddtias (with notices of some of the preceding) are treated of
according to various authorities, — as those of a white horse, of a
copper vesselful of sesamum seeds, of a waterpot of a student filled
with these seeds, of an elephant, of a chariot, of land, of a house, of
sheep, of a shelter, of ten cows (of molasses, ghrita, water, milk, curds,
honey, sugarcane juice, sugar, cotton, salt, and gold), of a golden-
horned cow, of a cow and a calf when the birth is taking place, (which

* The Shodasha ^lahadanas are, with a few variations from the Matsya, treated of in
the Linga and other Piiraiias. See Linga Purana, second part, pp. 5G-75. Puna
edition.

414

WHAT CASTE IS.

will secure a safe passage across tlie infernal river Vaitaraui), of a
female buffalo, of a goat, of odoriferous substances (from the mountains
Gandhamadana, Vipula, and Suparsliva), of a bhndmnklhi, an ocean
of happiness, of an anandanidhi, (an ocean of joy, a vessel of the ficus
glomerata, with a silver cover, and filled with gold), of images of the
gods and ten Avataras, of the twelve Adityas, of the ^loon and Sun,
of the nine planets, of golden images of the donor and of Kuvera
(the god of riches), of golden Shaligramas, and of the golden image
of Kalapurusha Yama (the god of death).

Respecting Kdmijaddna or optional or discretional gifts, much is
said. The Kdlapurti.shadd?ia, and Kdhichakraddna, made preparative to
death, may be of an image with golden eyes, or of a silver discus, silver
teeth, etc. They are said to remove the fear of death and pain, to
secure the full complement of life, and to merit heaven. Similar in
their objects and effects, are the Yamaddnas and Puskaraddnas. The
Krishndjinaddna, the gift of the skin of a black antelope, with accom-
paniments, destroys the sin of seven births. The Shai/addina, or gift of
a bed, confers beauty, riches, a ten thousand years’ lease of heaven,
.and other benefits. The Vustraddnn, or gift of clothes, confers, when the
dresses are of cotton, entrance into Svarga ; when they are of wool,
entrance into the abode of the Rishis; when they are of the kusha
grass, or of silk, entrance into the abode of the Vasus. The A'sanaddna,
the gift of a seat, keeps disease away, and gives a taste of heaven.
The Bhajanaddna, the gift of vessels, when they are of gold, procures
the heaven of Indra ; Avhen of silver, the abode of the Gandharvas ;
when of copper, the abode of the Yakshas and Rakshasas, when of
wood, iron, etc., lesser benefits. The SthdUddna, the gift of a tray,
gives fatness and pleasui’e. The Pdkaddna, the gift of cooked food, is
favourable to the acquisition of power. The Vidiidddna, or gift of learn-
ing, consists principally in presents of books. Those enumerated are
the Eighteen Puranas (according to the Yanilia) — in their adjective
names — as follows: — The Brahma, Pudma, Yaishnava, Shaiva, Bhaga-
vata, Xaradi'ya, Markandeya, Agneya, Bhavishya, Brinuna-Yaivartta,
Laiuga, Yaraha, Skanda, Yamana, Kaurmma, ^latsya, Garuda, and
the Brahmanda ; the Upapuranas ; the Ramayana, Bharata, and
books of the Tarkashiistra (logic), Chanda, Alankara, of the Yedas,
IVIimansa and Dharmashastra. Power on earth, and glory in heaven.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

415

are the consequences of liberality in this fonn. Chatropdnacldna, the
gift of umbrellas ami shoes, will give freedom from scorching heat, ar.d
from pain in walking, in the other world. Annoddna, the gift of grain,
(to serve a year) secures freedom 'from disease and pain. Tdnihula-
ddna, the gift of leaf and betelnut, secures luck. Gandhadravjjaddna,
the gift of odoriferous substances, keeps the body in health. Ratnaddna,
the gift of gems, keeps off pain, sin, and secures freedom (from births)
at death. Vidnnnaddna, the gift of coral, has similar effects.
Udakaddna, the gift of water, accortling to many authorities, is very
meritorious, giving happiness in heaven for a hundred yugas, etc.
JJharminaghataddn'z, the gift of a supply of vessels full of water, is like
the gift of a thousand cows, and secures heaven. YadnopavUaddaa,
the gift of the sacred string,* has the merit of the Agnishtoma.
Yashtiddna, the gift of a staff to one needing it, keeps off disease, and
a beating from Yama. Agnishtakaddna, the gift of fuel, secures the
Brahmaloka. The Dipaddna, the gift of a lamp, improves the eyes,
and gives prosperity, both in this life and that which is to come.
Ahhijaddna, the gift of shelter to the fearful, fulfils human desires.
Mdseshuddnas, gifts fit for the twelve months, keep the body sound,
prevent entrance into Yainaloka, and effect direct entrance into
Svarga. Ashvntliaseoana, the care of the holy fig-tree, destroys
disease. Pdnthopnchdra, feeding travellers, destroys sin, and aids
in acquiring wealth. GoparicJtarga, the service of cows, procures
felicity in Goloka (the heaven of Krishna). Ndnddravnjaddna, dis-
tributing of money in various forms, has many wonderful effects in
both worlds.

NotAvithstancling the precise nature of the injunctions
of the books, on the kinds, seasons, and modes of gifts,
there is in modern times much that is arbitrary in
the disposal of gifts. The great object of the legislation

respecting them is the encouragement of liberality to the
llrahmans by all imaginable ingenious devices, and
exorbitant promises both for this life and that which is to
come. Though the formalities prescribed are often

* Licluding the expenses of its assumption.

416

WHAT CASTE IS.

neglected, they are sometimes attended to, even in dis-
j)ensing largesses according to the highest scale. Fre-
quently the native princes of India are brought to
notice as more or less satisfying the high demands of
the parties who have the privilege of seeking alms. The
calls made at marriages by Brahmans, Bhats, and Charans
(or family bards) in the case of the Rajputs, were
often viewed as inducements to infanticide. ]\Iost
enormous sums are given away in the hope of getting
sons and heirs, throughout the country. “ About the
year 1794, Chanaghosha, a Kayastha of IMidnapur,” saj's
Mr. M’^ard, “ gave to the Brahmans an artificial moun-
tain of gold. A little before this Gopala Krishna, a
A'aidya of Rajanagar, presented to the Brahmans three
mountains, one of gold, one of rice, and another of the
seeds of sesamum.”* These mountains, he adds, need
not be very large ; but it is necessary that figures of
trees, deer, etc., should be seen on them. Sometimes
effects not recognized by the Smritis, are alleged to fol-
low munificent gifts. “ Shiidras,” it is asserted, “ cannot
]>ass from a lower grade to a higher ; but the Rajas of
Travankur are always manufactured into Brahmans on
ascending the masnad, an important part in this transmi-
gration being sometimes played by a golden cow, at the
mouth of which the Raja enters a Shiidra, and having
crawled along its interior arrangements, emerges under
the animal’s tail as one of the tAvice-born : otherwise he
])athes in a golden lotus. The gold figures are sub-
sequently diA'ided amongst the officiating Brahmans.

* Ward's View of tlie History, Literature, and Mythology of the
Hindus. Vol. III. p. 292.

CASTE IN THE LAW-BOOKS.

417

During the last century, two Travanknr Brdhmans
visited England, thereby, of course, losing their caste,
which was only I’estorcd by their passing the sacred
Yonimade of the finest gold, which afterwards, with
many other valuable gifts, were presented to one of the
temples.”* The Raja of Mahishur (Mysore), notwith-
standino; the embarrassed state of his finances, is said to
have often given magnificent presents to Brahmans, as well
as to the temples of the gods. Among others tnentioned
to me by parties acquamted with his country, are a
golden mandapa and cradle, with pearls and precious
stones, to the chief Yaishnava Svami ; a thousand golden
rings set with precious stones, to as many members of the
priestly caste; the weight of his own body in silver (on
his completing his sixtieth year) ; and liberal dakshi'na to
learned men. Similar presents have been given in our
oAvn day by some of the Maratha and Rajput princes. F east-
ings of Brahmans are reckoned meritorious throughout
the country. In expectation of them, and with a vie^v
to do justice to them, those of the old school sometimes
fast the day preceding them, and eat so copiously that
they need feAv additional supplies the day following.

(12.) The Shuddlii-Mayibkha treats of the removal
of ceremonial and other impurities. But I have ex^
tracted so much on this subject already, from Angira,
Manu, Yajnavalkya, and Parashara,f that it is not
necessary here again to attempt its exhibition.];

* Davy’s Land of the Permauls, p. 314. Compafe with this Forbes’s
Oriental Memoirs, vol. ii (2nd edit,) pp. 239-40.

t See before pp. 360 et serj^

I In the examination of the Mayukhas, I hare used my own
manuscripts and those of Ganpatnio Gadagil, Inamdar, of Wai,

418

WHAT CASTE IS.

By the Smritis the Caste-s3"stem was brought to its
full maturit}’, and stereotyped for ever, except in so far
as it is expected to be influenced what is held to be
the lamentable and destructive progress of the Kaliyuga.
In consequence of this circumstance, we need say very
little, comparatively, respecting Caste as it appears in the
later literature of the Hindus.

X. — Caste in the Harivansha.

The Ilarivanslia^ which is sometimes called a sup[)le-
ment to (khila)^ and sometimes a portion of, the
IMahabharata, is generall}^ considered as intermediate
between the Smritis and the Puranas, to which, never-
theless, it is sometunes made to refer. It treats,
especially in its earlier portions after its mtrodnctoiy
matter, of the glory of Hari, particular!}" in the form of
Krishna. It contains man}" curious legends. It is
scarcely necessary to say that it recognizes the caste-
system in its integrity, though it does not mention it
an}’ where at any considerable length.

Of Yeua, the prince reputed to be so rebellious against the Brah-
mans, it is there said that he was laid hold of by the great Ri.sliis,
Avho rubbed his left tliigh. From this rubbing a chmiuutive and black
man came forth, who, being afraitl, remained standing with joined
liands. Atri (the Rishi) seeing him afraid, said to liim, Xishida (sit
doAA'ii). He became the establisher (Jcarttd) of the race of the Xishddas*
The Harivansha recognizes Sutas and Mdgadhas, in their caste
occupations of encomiasts and bards.

It says that Prishadra, originally a Kshatriya, became a Shudra for
killing his guru’s cow ; and that two sons of Nabhagarishta, originally
A’^aishyas, became Brahmans. f It also alleges, like Mann, that the
Shakas, Yavauas, Kambojas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Haihayas, Talajanghas,
* Harivansha V. v, 325 et seq.

t II. V. xi. V. C58-9.

CASTE IN THE llARIVANSIIA.

419

etc., lost their caste of Kshatriyas for rebelling against the descendant
of llarischandra.* * * § These traditions, and others of a like character,
found in the Piiranas, deal with the fact that position in Aryan society
was not originally wholly dependent on birth.

To the various and contradictory accounts of the origin of Caste,
the following is added : — “ The renowned Sunahotra [a king of the
Lunar race] was the son of Kshatravrickllia, and had three very
righteous sons. Kasha, Shala, and the mighty Ghritsaniada* The son of
Ghritsamada was Shunaka, from whence sprang the Shaunakas,
Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.”f Shaunaka is also
spoken of in the Yishnu Purana,| as having “ originated the four
castes.” Perhaps this prince had some hand in framing laws for
their distinct recognition, as is onwards said to have been the case
with king Bali.§ In the context of the passage now cpiotcd, the
jMaitreyas are said to have assumed the part of the descendants
of Bhrigu (the duties of the Brahmauhood,) though they had the
character of Kshatriyas (as warriors ?).|| Children of [the Rishi
Angiras] are also said to have been “ born in the family of
Bhngu, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas, three kinds of dcscen-

* II. Y. xiv. See Muir's Texts i. 45. et seq. 5Ir. Muir thus translates the passage

in the Harivansha, to which I refer : — “ Aurva havinjj performed Sagara’.-i natal, and
other rites, and taught him all the Ye'das then provided him with a fiery missile, such as
even the gods could not withstand. By the power of this weapon, and attended by an
army incensed and fierce, Sagara speedily slew the Ilaihayas, as if they had been
beasts ; and acquu’ed great renown throughout the world. lie then set himself to
exterminate the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, l*aradas, and Pahlavas. But they
when on the point of beingslaughtered by Sagara, had recoiuseto the sage VashishHia,
and fell down before him. Ya.shishtha beholding them, by a sign restrained Sagara,
giving them assurance of protection. Sagara after considering his ovm vow, and
listening to what his teacher had to say, destroyed their caste (dharma), and made
them change their cu-stoms. He released the Shakas, after causing the half of their
heads to be shaven ; and the Yavanas and Kambojas, after having had their heads
entirely shaved. The Paradas were made to wear long hair, and the Pahlavas to
wear beards. They were all excluded from the study of the Ye'das, and from oblations
bv fire. The Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Kolisarpas, Mahishas,
Diirvas, Cholas and Ke'ralas, had all been Kshatriyas, but were deprived of their
social and religious position bj' the gi’cat Sagara, according to the advice of Yashishtha.’’^

t H. Y. xxix. V. 1518-20. Muir’s Texts, I. 49. J Y. P. iv. 8,

§ H. Y. .xxxi. V. 1684. 11 xxxii. re. 1789-90.

^ Harivaubha, xiv. rv. 773-83. Muir's Texts, Yol. i. p. 182.

420

WIIAT CASTE IS.

daiits in thousands.”* In a neighbouring pt^ssage Shudras are said
to have also had tire same descent.^

As in the Ramayana, it is said that in the reign of Rama the
Kshatriyas were subject to tlie Brahmans; the Vaishyas to the Ksha-
triyas ; and the Shudras to the three other castes. |

Even the wild Shabaras, Barbaras, and Pttlindas are represented
as praising A'rya (the wife of Shiva). §

Of a woman performing the Umdarata (the vrata of the goddess
Uma, wife of Shiva) it is said that she will give most magnificent
presents to a pure Brahman, such as two suits of clothing, a bed, a
conveyance, a house, grain, slaves, male and female, jewels, a mountain
of jewels, elephants, horses, cows, etc. etc.||

The Brahmans, in other circumstances, are represented as receiving
similar- presents.^

Tlie reading of the Mahdbharata should, at its diflferent stages, be
accompanied with most liberal largesses.**

Inattention to Brahmanical institutions is represented as the grand
cause of the progress of the evil Kali Yuga, a most conspicuous sign of
which is the usurpation by one caste of the duties of another, parti-
cularly as far as the four primitive castes are concerned. j’j’ A shrewd
guess has been made at the probable issue of the tyrannical system
of caste; but this guess is associated with great blunders as to the
material depravation of India, of Tyhicli no sign yet begins to appear.

A mystical origin of the Brahmans, according to their sacrificial dis-
tribution, is thus spoken of (I quote the translation and interposed
notes of Mr. Muir, subjoining a note respecting the text) : — “ The
Lord created the Brahma, who js the chjef, as well as the udgdtri, who
cliauuts the Bama Veda fr-om his mouth ; and hotri and adhvargu from
his amis.” [The text of the next verse seems to be corrupt, but it
appears to refer to four kinds of priests, the brdhmandchhamin, the
prastotri, the inaitrdvaruna, and the pratishtdtri.'] He formed the
pratihartri and fke pofri from his belly, the adhijapaka [query ach-

* II. V. xxix. r. 1.59C-7.

X H. Y. xlii. V. 2347-8.

II H. V. cxxxviii. v. 7805 et seq.

** H. V. cclviii. near the eud.

t H. V. xxxii. V. 1754.

§ H. V. lix. V. 3274.

^ H. V. clxxxi. near the end.
tt See II. V. adh. 194-199.

CASTE IN THE IIAKIVANSIIA.

421

and the neshtri from his thighs, the agmdhra and the sacrificial
brahmanija from his hands, the grdvan and the sacrificial siuietri from
his arms. Thus this divine lord of the world created these sixteen
excellent ritviks, the expounders of all sacrifice. Hence this Purusha
called the Veda is composed of sacrifice ; and all the Vedas with the
A'edangas, Upanishads, and ceremonies, are fonued of his essence.”*
This differs much from foiiner notices of the priestly generation.
There is no consistency in the accounts of the origin either of the
Brahmans or of the other castes,

Further proof of this we haye in the Harivansha, “ Vi.shnu, sprung
from Brahma, exalted above the power of sense, and absorbed in
devotion, becomes the patriarch Dakslia, and creates numerous beings.
The beautiful Brahmans were formed from an unchangeable element
(^akshara), the Kshatriyas from a changeable substance (kshara), the
Vaishyas from alteration {yikdra), and the Shudras from a modifi-
cation of smoke. \Vlren Vishnu was contemplating colors [or castes,
the word variia having both significations]. Brahmans were fashioned
with white, red, yellow, and blue colours, Thence his creatures attained
in the world the state of fourfold caste, as Brahmans, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, and Shudras ; — rbeing of one type, but with different duties,
two-footed, very wonderful, full of energy, and acquainted with the
means of success in all the works they had to perform. There are
declared to be ceremonies prescribed by the Vedas for the men
of the three (highest) castes. By this union of Vishnu with
Braluna [?], by wisdom and energy, the divine son of the Prachetasas
[Daksha], who was, in fact, Vishnu, the great devotee, passed, by
means of that contemplation, [or union] into the sphere of action. [?]
Hence the Shudras, sprung froip vacirity, are destitute of ceremonies,
and so are not entitled to the rites of initiation (sanskdrci) ; nor have

* H. V. adh. cc. v. 11358 et, seq. (Muir's Texts I. p. 36.) My manuscript of the
orijjinal seems more correct than that of the Calcutta printed edition used by
M. Muir. For it has actually Achdvaka, which confirms the conjectural

emendation of Mr. Muir. For Sunetri it has Unnetd (the equivalent of Unnetri). The
sixteen classes of priests are thxis given in the manuscript commentary of Nilakantha
Govinda, associated with my copy of the text : — Brahma, Udgata, Hota, Adhvaryu,
Brahmanachhansi, Prastota, Maitravaruna, Pratiprasthdta, Pratiharta, Pota, Achavaka,
Xe'shta, Agnidhra, Subrahmanya, Gravastota, and Uune'ta.

422

WHAT CASTE IS.

tliey a knowledge of tlie Vedas. Just as, upon the friction of wood,

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Indian Caste."

See other formats